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Rituals to process death are symbolic acts that help people express their feelings about loss, organize the emotional chaos that overwhelms them, give symbolic meaning to life cycle events, and socially construct shared meanings (Figueroa, Cáceres & Torres, n.d.). These rituals can vary depending on the culture, religion, and society to which individuals belong (Osiris et al., n.d.). Therefore, according to Osiris et al. (n.d.), it is essential to be sensitive and respectful of the beliefs and customs of those who have lost someone, as rituals have symbolic and emotional content that helps them process pain and integrate loss as an experience in their lives. These rituals or customs from any culture or religion can facilitate a healthy grieving process, allowing individuals to navigate through all the natural and emotional responses involved in losing a loved one (Carrera et al., 2020). However, if a person does not confront grief and does not recover properly, complications may arise, especially in the case of children and adolescents. Consequently, in line with Carrera et al. (2020), it is of vital importance that death be a part of everyday life, that fear be removed from it, and that mourning be freely expressed; this will contribute to individuals experiencing the grieving process appropriately without interfering or hindering their lives. How to Perform Symbolic Rituals? Grief can be expressed in various ways, depending on each person experiencing it (Girod, 2020). The purpose of symbolic rituals is to provide both the family and friends of the deceased, as well as the departed themselves, with a sense of connection and farewell. The key is to choose something that allows people to feel the presence of the loved one and honor their memory. To achieve this, those grieving should reflect on what aspects they want to celebrate, appreciate, or remember about the deceased and how they can do so. However, in line with Girod (2020), these rituals can be challenging and sorrowful moments, so it is recommended that individuals attending them prepare emotionally to face them. Finally, it is worth mentioning that there is no single correct way to experience grief, as each person has their own unique journey and way of coping (Girod, 2020). Similarly, it is important to emphasize that all manifestations that arise in the grieving process are normal and valid, even those that may seem negative or irrational, such as obsessive ruminations, guilt, anger or frustration with the deceased. Therefore, according to Girod (2020), individuals should validate and express everything they are feeling instead of blocking or concealing it. Traditional Rituals It is essential to talk about rituals in honor of the deceased, considering that in every culture and every family, there are practices that are more meaningful and important to them (Carrera et al., 2020). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many traditional rituals cannot be carried out, so it is important to explain to children and young people the situation they are experiencing so that they can better assimilate their loss. Participating in rituals and activities helps them make sense of their process and understand what death and farewell entail. If children attend traditional rituals, they should be accompanied, and it should be assessed whether it is appropriate for them to stay for an extended period. In line with Carrera et al. (2020), when a child shows signs of boredom or distraction, it indicates a loss of interest, and it is best to help them leave and take them home with a caring person who can look after them. Before involving children in any activity or ritual, they should be prepared for what they will see, meaning they should be informed in detail about who and how they will see the deceased and what other things will happen at the location (Carrera et al., 2020). It is important to explain specifically: the location, the deceased's condition, the attendees, the clothing, the colors, the mourning, the hugs, the condolences, the music, among other aspects. Finally, it is crucial that, once the ritual has been explained in detail, the child decides whether they want to participate or not. If they do not wish to attend, the adult should inquire about the reasons and address any needs, fantasies, or fears they may have. According to Carrera et al. (2020), ultimately, their decision should be respected, providing them with security and the ability to overcome their feelings. Alternative Rituals in COVID Times - 19 Each individual processes their grief according to their development, knowledge, or the people around them (Carrera et al., 2020). Being aware of these differences facilitates the recognition of one's own needs to cope with a loss. The COVID-19 quarantine has significantly impacted people's daily lives, changing, among other things, the processes of saying goodbye to the deceased (Carrera et al., 2020). Probably, nowadays, it may not be possible to bid farewell to a loved one in the usual or traditional way. However, this does not imply giving up rituals or expressing the love felt for them (Figueroa, Cáceres & Torres, n.d.). Therefore, in accordance with Carrera et al. (2020), it is necessary to seek healthy and socially responsible options to initiate the grieving process. Before performing or suggesting a ritual to the family, Carrera et al. (2020) indicate that some guidelines should be followed: respecting the spaces of those grieving, holding a previous meeting with those living together, or contacting by phone or video call the family members who cannot be present, and involving children, people with disabilities, older adults, and anyone willing to participate, explaining to them naturally what to do and how to get involved, according to their age and condition. Writing One way to perform a symbolic farewell ritual is to write what needs to be expressed (Girod, 2020). When experiencing a situation of great pain, such as the loss of a loved one, one may not feel like thinking about how to do it or may not find a good way to carry it out. In that case, one can choose to write a traditional letter, a monologue, a poem, or even a song. There is no predetermined format for it, and one can talk about anything needed (Girod, 2020). For example, one can recount how they feel about what happened and the best experiences shared with that person (Carrera et al., 2020). Also, one can write something that would be said to that person, as if they were present, recalling some moments, expressing gratitude, asking for forgiveness, among others (Figueroa, Cáceres & Torres, n.d.). Or, according to Figueroa, Cáceres & Torres (n.d.), one can collect texts from other authors with whom one identifies. Drawing Family members, especially children and adolescents, can be invited to draw the loved one or the emotions they are feeling at that moment (Carrera et al., 2020). If desired, they can be asked to explain what they have drawn to better understand what they are seeing and avoid misunderstandings. In accordance with Carrera et al. (2020), if a difficult situation arises, seeking the help of a healthcare professional is advised. Memory Album An album of memories can be created, including drawings, some photos with the loved one, anecdotes, their favorite song, or an invented story (Carrera et al., 2020). Additionally, a memory box can be made to store memories of that person; even a video can help preserve the memory (Carrera et al., 2020). According to Robayo (2020), photographs allow remembering the departed vividly and can help reconstruct their meaning in one's life, as well as perpetuate memories with that person. Calm Corner The calm corner is an ideal place for a person to express their feelings when needed (Carrera et al., 2020). In this space, coloring mandalas, an hourglass, or a calm bottle, torn newspaper, recycled paper, crayons, markers, stories, among other things, can be placed (Carrera et al., 2020). According to Figueroa, Cáceres & Torres (n.d.), one can go to the calm corner when wanting to be in silence, meditate, pray, express what one feels, manifest how they are now that the person is not there, disconnect, imagine life from now on, remember all the moments spent together, explain why the farewell had to happen in one way or another, explain how one would have wanted the funeral to be, among other things. Reading Stories Reading stories is a relaxing and enjoyable activity that can be used to reflect and become more aware of the process being experienced and the emotions accompanying it (Carrera et al., 2020). According to Carrera et al. (2020), after the activity, spaces can be sought to discuss any doubts that may arise and their feelings. Handbooks It is recommended to review the handbook "An Important Person is no Longer Around" to explore more activities that can help in having a healthy grieving process and developing resilience skills. References Carrera, M., Gutiérrez, K., Hernández, O., Ibarra, S., Poiré, R., & Sabbagh, L. et al. (2020). Recomendaciones para abordar EL DUELO Y LA MUERTE con niñas, niños y adolescentes. Enduelo.org. Recuperado 7 October 2021, a partir de https://enduelo.org/descargas/guia_ninos_enDuelo.pdf Figueroa, M., Cáceres, R., & Torres, A. Duelo: Manual de Capacitación Para Acompañamiento y Abordaje de Duelo. Unicef.org. Recuperado 4 October 2021, a partir de https://www.unicef.org/elsalvador/media/3191/file/Manual%20sobre%20Duelo.pdf Girod, C. (2020). Ritos de despedida: mas allá de los ritos funerarios. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 26 October 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/ritos-de-despedida-mas-alla-de-los-ritos-funerarios/ Osiris, R., Guerrero, G., Herrera, A., Ascencio, L., Rodríguez, M., & Aguilar, I. et al. MANUAL OPERATIVO DEL CURSO PARA EL ACOMPAÑAMIENTO DEL DUELO EN SITUACIONES ESPECIALES DURANTE LA PANDEMIA DE LA COVID- 19 EN MÉXICO.. Inprf.gob.mx. Recuperado 26 October 2021, a partir de http://inprf.gob.mx/ensenanzanew/archivos/2020/manual_duelo.pdf Robayo, A. (2020). Rituales de despedida alternativo. Duelo Contigo. Recuperado 26 October 2021, a partir de https://duelocontigo.org/rituales-de-despedida-alternativos/

Life, from a zoological perspective, refers to the set of parameters that distinguish animals, plants, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria from other natural realities (Sánchez Amador, 2021). Without delving into metaphysical topics, it is necessary to understand that the generation of life, in many cases, is not entirely clear. Beyond concepts such as homeostasis, growth, reproduction, and differentiation, a concise definition of life could simply be what occurs between the states of birth and death. All living beings share, in addition to at least one cell, the composition of four essential bioelements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. According to Sánchez Amador (2021), these four chemical pillars give rise to all the biomolecules that constitute each cell and, therefore, enable life on planet Earth. The Essence of Biomolecules Biomolecules refer to all molecules that participate in the structure and functioning of living organisms, whether they are polymeric or macromolecules such as polysaccharides, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, or their monomers: monosaccharides, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides, as well as their metabolic intermediates (Micocci, 2018). In accordance with Micocci (2018), this term encompasses a variety of different molecules, practically grouped into seven categories: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, water, ions, vitamins, and nucleic acids. These molecules are omnipresent in all living beings, with evident implications (Sánchez Amador, 2021). Faced with this reality, there are two possibilities: all living beings share a common ancestor, or alternatively, different types of living beings with the same chemical composition have independently emerged throughout history, although this latter option is highly improbable. Here, the principle of Occam's razor comes into play, suggesting that, among two theories of equal validity, the simpler one will likely explain the problem at hand. Thus, Sánchez Amador (2021) mentions that the uniform presence of biomolecules in all taxa confirms, in the most logical manner, that all living beings have evolved from the same ancestor. Chemical Basis of Life: Beyond the Periodic Table Bioelements are chemical elements present in all living beings, either in atomic form or as part of biomolecules (Sánchez Amador, 2021). Although more than 60 elements from the periodic table can be found in the tissues of living beings, only 25 are universal and inalienable. Furthermore, 96% of the mass of almost all cellular bodies corresponds solely to 6 bioelements: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), or CHONPS, according to mnemonic rules. These 6 elements serve as the basis for biomolecules due to properties such as the ability to form covalent bonds between them, allowing the creation of stable bonds. According to Sánchez Amador (2021), carbon atoms can form three-dimensional skeletons, enabling the variability of compounds based on their carbon structure. Bioelements facilitate the formation of double and triple bonds between them, as well as the synthesis of various structures, whether branched, cyclic, among others (Sánchez Amador, 2021). With a few combined bioelements, numerous functional groups with different chemical and physical properties can be synthesized. All these premises are fundamental from the simplest bacteria to the complete organism of a human being. In the end, Sánchez Amador (2021) mentions that it is crucial not to lose sight of the following fact: biological complexity is determined by the number and cellular organization, but the basal substrate always remains constant. Building Life: Biomolecules in Cellular Architecture Amino Acids and Proteins The basic units of all proteins are amino acids, substances in which the amino group is found on the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylic acid group (Micocci, 2018). It is important to note that in this configuration, there is always at least one carbon atom between the amino group and the carboxylic acid group, providing a defined structure to these molecules (Micocci, 2018). There are 20 different amino acids that can occur within a protein, and the order in which they are found plays a crucial role in determining the structure and function of the protein (Rogers, 2023). According to Sánchez Amador (2021), a notable example is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an amino acid that acts as a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. Proteins, considered complex substances (macromolecules), are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and, in some cases, phosphorus (Micocci, 2018). They are also classified as biomolecules, forming part of the same category as the biomolecules that constitute them (Sánchez Amador, 2021). Proteins play a fundamental role as structural elements in cells (Rogers, 2023). According to Sánchez Amador (2021), it is classified as a protein when the chain of connected amino acids exceeds 50-100 units or reaches a mass of 5000 atomic mass units (uma). One of the most relevant functions of proteins is their contribution as essential components of enzymes, which are the main cellular catalysts (Micocci, 2018). In addition to being part of cellular structures, proteins act as active agents in various cellular and organismal functions. According to Micocci (2018), examples include chemical work in all cellular reactions, mechanical work in muscle contraction, osmotic work that allows the entry and exit of metabolites through active transport in living cells, and electrical work evident in nerve conduction and phenomena of perception and sensitivity, such as pain, temperature, light, body balance, and electrical phenomena of thought. Finally, proteins function as hormones, acting as chemical messengers between cells (Micocci, 2018). Examples of proteinaceous hormones include insulin, glucagon, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and other trophic hormones from the pituitary gland, such as thyroid-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, and growth hormone. According to Micocci (2018), proteins also participate in the body's defense systems, functioning as antibodies, such as immunoglobulins G, M, A, D, and E, and forming all components of the complement. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and include some of the relevant molecules in the life of organisms, such as glucose, vital for cellular metabolic energy, glycogen present in the liver and muscles as accessible energy reserves, and ribose and deoxyribose that are part of the chemical structure of nucleic acids (Micocci, 2018). According to Micocci (2018) and Rogers (2023), carbohydrates are elaborated from four categories of sugar units: monosaccharides, which are crystalline substances soluble in water and generally sweet-tasting; disaccharides, compounds of two monosaccharides, such as maltose, sucrose, lactose, and cellobiose; oligosaccharides, formed by the union of a few monosaccharides (between 2 and 10) of 6 carbons (hexoses); and polysaccharides, large molecules formed by the union of numerous hexose molecules through glycosidic bonds, constituting polymers. Carbohydrates, widely recognized for their importance in nutrition, encompass substances such as free sugars, starch, glycogen, and others (Sánchez Amador, 2021). These biomolecules are associated with high energy content, providing 4.5 kcal per gram, and play a key role in the storage and burning of energy in various organisms. In humans, short-term energy reserves are found in glycogen, not in fatty tissue. Sánchez Amador (2021) mentions that the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that approximately 55% - 60% of the total caloric intake should be based on carbohydrates, given their abundance in foods such as bread, corn, potatoes, rice, cereals, legumes, and dairy products. Lipids Lipids represent a heterogeneous group of organic substances that share the characteristic of being nonpolar molecules, insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents (Micocci, 2018). These molecules are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and occasionally phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur, being real or potential esters of fatty acids (Micocci, 2018). According to Sánchez Amador (2021), this diverse group includes fats or oils, phospholipids, and fatty acids, which can be saturated, monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated. Lipids, essential in the biomolecules of living organisms, play various functions, such as being a source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers (Rogers, 2023). Additionally, they participate in the formation of cell membranes that separate cells from their environment and contribute to the creation of organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, in more complex organisms (Rogers, 2023). Contrary to common belief, foods rich in lipids should constitute around 30% - 35% of the total caloric intake, as fats are not inherently harmful (Sánchez Amador, 2021). According to Sánchez Amador (2021), human adipose tissue not only serves hormonal functions but also allows for long-term energy storage and provides protection against mechanical damage, among other fundamental functions. Vitamins Vitamins are compounds that significantly differ from each other and are essential for life (Sánchez Amador, 2021). These substances are commonly known as "micronutrients" because, despite being required in minimal amounts, they play various roles in the body that cannot be replaced by other compounds. Sánchez Amador (2021) mentions that among them, vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E stand out. Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are macromolecules formed by the linear polymerization of nucleotides, which are complex monomers (Micocci, 2018). Within biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), perform the unique function of storing the genetic code of an organism: the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are essential for life (Rogers, 2023). DNA is the library of life, as it contains all the genetic information necessary for cellular metabolism and, consequently, the survival of all cells, organs, and tissues of a living being (Sánchez Amador, 2021). Additionally, in correspondence with Sánchez Amador (2018), DNA is the basis of inheritance and evolution because mutations are generated through it, and characters that modify the genotype and phenotype of species are transmitted over time. Inorganic Biomolecules The term "inorganic biomolecule" refers to substances that, despite not being of organic origin, play a fundamental role in the structure and preservation of organisms (Sánchez Amador, 2021). According to Sánchez Amador (2021), a clear example of this type of biomolecule is water (H2O), which represents 70% of the total weight of cells. References Micocci, L. (2018). Universidad Nacional del Litoral. Universidad Nacional del Litoral. https://www.unl.edu.ar/ingreso/cursos/medicina/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2017/10/Quimica_09.pdf Rogers, K. (2023). Biomolecule. En Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/biomolecule Sánchez Amador, S. A. (2021, marzo 11). Biomoléculas: Qué son, Tipos, Funciones y Características. Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/salud/biomoleculas

The basic components of matter, from the cells of the human body to the air, water, and minerals, are formed by different types of atoms and molecules (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). These tiny particles, considered the fundamental unit of matter, allow us to understand various biological processes, such as depolarization, which are relevant to neuroscience. However, the formation of living organisms or the various materials observed daily requires atoms to group and interact in specific ways. In line with Castillero Mimenza (2017), chemistry, through the study of the composition of matter, has successfully identified the elements that enable the bonding between atoms: the so-called chemical bonds. Chemical Bonds: The Foundation of Matter A chemical bond is the result of the union between atoms, molecules, or ions that give rise to more complex and stable compounds, modifying their physical and chemical properties (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). To achieve greater stability, atoms complement their electrical charges by sharing, donating, or accepting electrons from their outermost layer, thus forming ions (positive or negative) that are attracted to each other by electrostatic force. The reason for this behavior, according to Ondarse Álvarez (2021), is that the protons in the atomic nucleus have a positive charge, and the electrons surrounding it have a negative charge, so atoms seek to balance their electrical charges. The attraction between the electron and the nucleus depends on the position, electronegativity, and electronic stability of each atom and can be so strong that it prevents repulsion between atoms (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). This forms a chemical bond in which one atom loses electrons, and another gains them, reaching a final state in which the two atoms together have a stable electrical charge (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). In this way, in line with Zita Fernandes (2020), all the compounds that exist in nature originate. Characteristics Polarity Polarity is a property of molecules formed by covalent bonds, depending on the nature of the atoms involved (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). When two atoms of the same element or elements with a very small electronegativity difference (less than 0.4) bond, the pair of electrons they share is equally attracted by both atoms, resulting in a uniform distribution of electric charges in the molecule. These molecules are called "nonpolar" or "apolares," and this type of bond is termed "nonpolar covalent bond”. Conversely, when two atoms of elements with an electronegativity difference greater than 0.4 bond, the more electronegative atom attracts the electrons of the bond more strongly, leading to a non-uniform distribution of charge in the molecule. According to Ondarse Álvarez (2021), these molecules are called “polar", and this type of bond is termed "polar covalent bond”. Electrovalency The main characteristic of ionic bonds is that the atoms forming them have a significant difference in electronegativity (greater than 2), causing one to donate and the other to receive electrons upon bonding (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). According to Ondarse Álvarez (2021), this electrical capacity of atoms is referred to as electrovalency, and it depends on certain elements being naturally more inclined to be electron "donors" (Groups IA, IIA, IIIA of the periodic table), while others are, on the contrary, electron "acceptors" (Groups VA, VIA, and VIIA). Sea of Electrons A phenomenon that occurs among metallic atoms of the same type, bonding through metallic bonds, is known as the "sea of electrons" (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). This means that atomic nuclei are surrounded by a sea of their electrons. According to Ondarse Álvarez (2021), metals exhibit low electronegativity, brightness, and malleability, properties attributed to the nature of the bond that joins them in their solid state: a rigid order that mobilizes valence electrons from their orbitals, allowing for excellent conductivity of electricity and heat, and the ability to reflect almost all the light that illuminates them. Chemical Bond Breakage Under certain conditions, the breaking of chemical bonds that hold the atoms of a substance together can occur (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). This happens when heat, electricity, or other substances that interfere with the bonding are applied, causing the release of the atoms. An example of this is "electrolysis," a process in which hydrogen and oxygen, which form water, are separated by subjecting it to an electric current. According to Ondarse Álvarez (2021), another example is the denaturation of a protein, which involves the destruction of its chemical bonds by exposing it to very high temperatures. Main Types of Chemical Bonds Different atoms come together to form various molecules through three main types of chemical bonds (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). The nature of these bonds depends on the types of atoms involved, which can be metallic or non-metallic. According to Castillero Mimenza (2017), metallic atoms have a limited tendency to attract electrons, while non-metallic atoms have a higher tendency. Ionic Bond Ionic bond refers to the force that holds together a metallic element, such as sodium or magnesium, and a non-metallic element, for example, chlorine or sulfur (Zita Fernandes, 2020). When the nucleus of the non-metallic element attracts the outermost electron of the metallic element, the latter transfers it to the former (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). Thus, stable electrochemical compounds are formed (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). By losing electrons, the metal becomes a positive ion called a cation (Zita Fernandes, 2020). On the contrary, by gaining electrons, the non-metal transforms into a negative ion called an anion. These ions aggregate in a three-dimensional lattice held together by electrostatic forces between opposite charges. According to Zita Fernandes (2020), these forces are known as ionic compounds. The Earth's crust is mainly composed of this type of compounds. Many rocks, minerals, and gemstones are examples of ionic compounds (Zita Fernandes, 2020). For example, sodium chloride NaCl, where sodium, the metal, donates an electron to chlorine, the non-metal. Or magnesium chloride MgCl2, where magnesium Mg donates two electrons to two chlorine atoms (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Materials resulting from this type of bonding are usually hard and require a lot of energy to melt, but they can also be easily compressed and broken (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). Additionally, as mentioned by Castillero Mimenza (2017), they often dissolve easily. Covalent Bond Atoms with similar or identical electronegative properties can form a type of bond called covalent, where electrons are shared between them without altering their quantity (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). This bond is common in organic matter, such as that constituting the human body, and is more stable than ionic bonding. Furthermore, compounds with this bond usually have a low melting point and generally do not conduct electricity (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). Zita Fernandes (2020) mentions that, depending on the electron affinity of the atoms and the number of shared electrons, the covalent bond can be classified into various types. One of these types is the non-polar or pure covalent bond, which occurs when electrons are evenly distributed between the two atoms constituting the molecule (Zita Fernandes, 2020). This happens when the molecule is symmetrical, composed of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen, oxygen, or carbon (Castillero Mimenza, 2017; Zita Fernandes, 2020). According to Castillero Mimenza (2017), these molecules do not dissolve in water under any circumstances. Another type is the polar covalent bond, which occurs when electrons are more concentrated in one atom than in the other, due to its greater attraction to them (Zita Fernandes, 2020). This creates a charge difference between the ends of the molecule, which are called poles (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Electrons are not lost or gained in this type of bond but are shared unevenly (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). According to Zita Fernandes (2020), an example of this type of bond is hydrogen fluoride H-F, where fluorine has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen and therefore attracts the shared electrons more. Atoms forming covalent bonds share a certain number of electron pairs between them, which can be one, two, or three (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). This determines whether the bond is single, double, or triple, respectively. The simplest type of covalent bond is the single bond, where two atoms contribute one electron each to form a shared electron pair (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Single covalent bonds are symbolized with a single line A - A (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). An example of this bond is between two chlorine atoms, each having seven valence electrons and needing one more to complete their outer shell. When they join, according to Zita Fernandes (2020), they form the chlorine molecule Cl2, which is more stable than isolated atoms. Another type of covalent bond is the double bond, which occurs when two atoms share two pairs of electrons, totaling four electrons (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Double covalent bonds are symbolized with two parallel lines A = A (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). An example is the bond between two oxygen atoms, each having six electrons in their outer shell and needing two more for stability. According to Zita Fernandes (2020), by sharing four electrons in total, both atoms end up with eight electrons in their valence shell. Yet another type is the triple covalent bond, involving the sharing of three pairs of electrons, totaling six electrons between two atoms (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Triple covalent bonds are represented by three parallel lines A ≡ A (Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). An example of this bond is between carbon and nitrogen in the hydrogen cyanide molecule H - C - N, where carbon contributes four electrons, and nitrogen contributes two, as mentioned by Zita Fernandes (2020). Finally, the coordinated or dative covalent bond is formed when only one of the atoms in the bond provides the two electrons that are shared (Zita Fernandes, 2020). An example is the bond between the nitrogen of ammonia NH3 and the boron of boron trifluoride BF3, where nitrogen donates a pair of electrons to boron, which has none to share. Thus, according to Zita Fernandes (2020), both atoms achieve having eight electrons in their valence shell. Metallic Bond Metallic bond is the attractive force that binds metallic elements such as sodium (Na), barium (Ba), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), gold (Au), silver (Ag), and aluminum (Al) (Zita Fernandes, 2020). This force originates from the interaction between positive ions and negatively charged electrons that flow freely between them (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Positive ions form a crystalline network where negative electrons move easily, following regular patterns (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). This structure determines the properties of metals, which are usually solid, strong, and malleable, meaning they can be molded without breaking (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). Additionally, metal atoms are closely packed, facilitating the movement of electrons within the atom network (Zita Fernandes, 2020). According to Castillero Mimenza (2017), this also explains the electrical conductivity of metals because their electrons are free. Chemical Bonds Between Molecules The main chemical bonds are not the only ones that can form between molecules; there are also other molecular-level modalities (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). One of them is the Van der Waals or Dipole-Dipole forces, which occur between symmetrical molecules that attract or repel each other based on the interaction of their molecules or ions (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). This type of bond can be of three classes: between two permanent dipoles, between two induced dipoles, or between a permanent dipole and an induced one (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). An example of this bond is found in formaldehyde molecules H2C = O, which are polar and have a partial negative charge on oxygen and a partial positive charge on hydrogen (Zita Fernandes, 2020). Thus, according to Zita Fernandes (2020), the positive side of one formaldehyde molecule is attracted to the negative side of another formaldehyde molecule. Another modality of chemical bond between molecules is the hydrogen bond or hydrogen bridge, which forms between hydrogen and another element with high polarity (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). In this bond, hydrogen has a positive charge and binds to polar atoms with high electronegativity, creating an interaction or bridge between them (Castillero Mimenza, 2017). Although this bond is weak, it allows two atoms that normally would not come together to connect, creating complex and stable molecules, both organic and inorganic (Castillero Mimenza, 2017; Ondarse Álvarez, 2021). Zita Fernandes (2020) mentions an example of this bond between water H2O and ammonia NH3. References Castillero Mimenza, O. (2017, septiembre 7). Los 5 Tipos de Enlaces Químicos: Así se Compone la Materia. Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/miscelanea/tipos-enlaces-quimicosOndarse Álvarez, D. (2021). Enlace Químico: Tipos, Ejemplos y Características. Enciclopedia Humanidades. https://humanidades.com/enlace-quimico/ Zita Fernandes, A. (2020, noviembre 3). Los 10 Tipos de Enlaces Químicos. Diferenciador. https://www.diferenciador.com/tipos-de-enlaces-quimicos/

Grief is a symbolic process that gives special meaning to funeral rituals, which are practiced not only by humans but also by some animals (Sánchez, 2019; Pastor, 2020). This highlights the importance of these rites, which are more elaborate and varied in the human species than in others (Sánchez, 2019). Therefore, since humans have been humans, funeral rites have existed in all cultures and throughout all times. In line with Sánchez (2019), these rituals are crucial for accepting death, processing the emotions it generates, and marking a turning point, as the death of a person opens the door to the infinite and represents such a radical transformation that it cannot be assumed as a common occurrence. Funeral Rites and Acceptance The grieving process involves a crucial element, which is the funeral rituals (Sánchez, 2019). These rituals represent a disruption in the routine that allows the initiation of the acceptance process, one of the most difficult and perplexing aspects of grief. Both on a collective and individual level, they assist in acknowledging the existence of a loss (Sánchez, 2019). In short, according to Pastor (2020), tributes and rituals are the paths that humanity has developed in all civilizations and carry a crucial cultural, psychological, and spiritual meaning: they are the way to channel greater symbolism through an act. In this acceptance process, a final contact with the deceased is included (Sánchez, 2019). During the funeral ritual, the corpse symbolizes the living person who has passed away but has not truly gone (Delgado, 2005). Although it is known that the loved one is dead, there may be a need to connect with them to express gratitude, acknowledge their good deeds, or reconcile in some way (Sánchez, 2019). Additionally, funeral rituals serve to alleviate and manage the feelings of persecution that arise when a loved one dies. According to Sánchez (2019), they offer an opportunity for the person going through grief to start this process, to make peace with the departed and with themselves. Finally, the ritual contributes to overcoming the guilt felt by the living family member for not being able to do something positive to save their loved one from death (Delgado, 2005). When a person dies, survivors often carry a feeling of guilt. This feeling repeatedly strikes the mind, causing internal fear and discomfort, leading to constant questioning of the relationship with the departed loved one. In these moments, in line with Delgado (2005), knowing that there are rituals to experience, to overcome and endure, can help in overcoming the loss. The Rite and the Expression Funeral rituals involve the expression of feelings since they allow people to externalize grief publicly without being judged (Hanoos, 2020). In a society that tends to conceal pain, making it increasingly private and medical, funeral rites break this isolation and facilitate community bonds to embrace and acknowledge what has happened (Pastor, 2020). According to Sánchez (2020), outside of these rituals, such behavior becomes somewhat suspicious. Furthermore, grief is experienced collectively, offering consolation (Sánchez, 2019). Although each person experiences suffering in a unique way, in rituals, pain is shared, providing comfort. The company of others offers the opportunity to express the feelings experienced by the departed person. Talking about this person and mutually reinforcing memories is something that softens the pain. In this sense, funeral rituals also play a clearly effective therapeutic role in these situations. Finally, funeral rituals are a way of honoring the memory of the deceased (Sánchez, 2019). It is an act of consideration, respect, and appreciation (Brito, 2019). Perhaps it doesn't serve the deceased much, but it allows the living to make gestures of affection and bestow them (Sánchez, 2019). Posthumous expressions that leave the feeling of having been loved for the last time (Brito, 2019). According to Sánchez (2019), this alone gives meaning to farewell rituals. The Ritual as a Behavior Normalizer Los rituales funerarios tienen un poder terapéutico porque normalizan y normativizan socialmente, es decir, porque indican el camino que se debe seguir para alcanzar el objetivo (Delgado, 2005). Los ritos funerarios son útiles para regular el comportamiento social en momentos difíciles, ya que señalan lo que la sociedad espera de cada individuo. Sin ellos, la muerte podría ser entendida de forma distinta por cada persona y no se sabría cómo actuar en cada situación, prolongando o acortando demasiado el duelo. Así, de acuerdo con Delgado (2005), los ritos establecen la norma del comportamiento social y generan una sociabilidad orientada. References Brito, N. (2019). Cementerio Patrimonial de Cuenca. Cementeriopatrimonialdecuenca.com. Recuperado 2 October 2021, a partir de https://www.cementeriopatrimonialdecuenca.com/blog/detalle/442 Delgado, J. (2005). LA FUERZA TERAPÉUTICA DEL RITO FUNERARIO. Rua.ua.es. Recuperado 2 October 2021, a partir de https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/1008/1/culturacuidados_17_08.pdf Hanoos, M. (2020). Duelo en tiempos de COVID-19. Marina Hanoos. Recuperado 2 October 2021, a partir de https://www.mhpsicologia.com/duelo-en-tiempos-de-covid-19/ Pastor, P. (2020). Por qué son importantes los ritos y los homenajes en el duelo. Fundación Mario Losantos del Campo. Recuperado 2 October 2021, a partir de https://www.fundacionmlc.org/homenajes-ritos-duelo/ Sánchez, E. (2019). La importancia de los ritos funerarios en el proceso de duelo. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 2 October 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/la-importancia-de-los-ritos-funerarios-en-el-proceso-de-duelo/

Aristotle questioned whether it is more convenient to direct affection towards oneself rather than towards any other entity, or if, on the contrary, it was more advisable to orient that feeling towards others (González, 2016). In correspondence with González (2016), the wise Greek philosopher presented a unique perspective on egoism and its close connection with self-love. The Intricate Weave of Love In "Nicomachean Ethics," Aristotle's extensive work, the philosopher deductively unravels what he considers to be a virtuous individual (González, 2016). In this work, the author focuses on the comparison between self-love and selfishness. According to this philosopher, real facts contradict the theories of selfishness. While it is true that loving a best friend is virtuous, he also argues that the individual oneself is the best friend one can have (González, 2016). This is because undoubtedly, people who love themselves desire their own good, seek a long life, and are kind to themselves (Scomparin, 2010). So, the Greek philosopher asks: Is it selfish to love oneself? (González, 2016). Of course, the closest relationship one can have in life is with oneself. In other words, according to Fernández (2003), the wicked would sin not so much due to excessive self-love but rather because they do not love themselves enough. Following the Traces of Aristotelian Egoism From the moment Aristotle begins to outline the principles of self-love, his dissertation delves into the exploration of nuances to egoism (González, 2016). González (2016) points out that Aristotle, despite considering the term "egoism" as derogatory and shameful, does not completely dismiss it, as he recognizes a higher dimension in this concept. In his analysis, Aristotle breaks down egoism into two categories (González, 2016). The first type focuses on love for the earthly, equated by the philosopher with the general behavior of the people, whom he calls the "vulgar." This outcome manifests in a society marked by pronounced stratification, such as ancient Greece. He describes it as an anxiety marked by bodily pleasures, where people seek to accumulate wealth, honors, and goods, finding authentic devotion in the material. Their sole purpose is to satisfy their desires and passions, which Aristotle sees as listening to the most irrational part of the soul. He interprets this behavior as a vulgar, deplorable, and widely prevalent custom (González, 2016). Fernández (2003) mentions that these individuals seek to hoard wealth, honor, or pleasure excessively, in other words, they are greedy. In the second category of reflections, the classical philosopher delves into the notion that individuals who orient themselves towards the highest peaks of justice and wisdom can also be considered egoistic (González, 2016). However, it is crucial to emphasize that this type of egoism does not imply a negative or egocentric orientation; rather, it refers to individuals who, in seeking virtue, right action, and appreciation of beauty, focus their attention on personal development for the sake of contributing to collective well-being. Therefore, in correspondence with González (2016), Aristotle argues that this form of egoism is not tainted with excessive selfishness or indifference towards others. Egoism Gives Way to Self-Love How not to call selfish a person who dedicates body and soul to the pursuit of wisdom, justice, and beauty? This individuality strives to satisfy its own needs, marking its sole purpose in life (González, 2016). Although the philosopher acknowledges the importance of these beings, he considers them noble and selfish, but not in a harmful way, as reason governs their egoism, preventing it from being vulgar. According to González (2016), it is not a passion but rather a dedication grounded in the intellectual. Aristotle argues that these noble men, although selfish, dedicate their efforts to the practice of virtue, finding joy in it (González, 2016). Therefore, it is reasonable and just that the virtuous man loves himself, as this love leads to nobility and benefits both himself and others (Fernández, 2003). In this way, they discover both personal benefit and service to others (González, 2016). González (2016) mentions that, according to the Greek philosopher, virtue is the supreme good, and while the virtuous man acts with intelligence and reason, the wicked man experiences a profound discord between his duty and his actions. References Fernández, A. (2003). Del amor propio. Nodulo.org. Recuperado 8 July 2021, a partir de https://www.nodulo.org/ec/2003/n018p03.htm González, P. (2016). Del egoísmo al amor propio según Aristóteles. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 8 July 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/egoismo-amor-propio-aristoteles/ Scomparin, A. (2010). El egoísmo, el amor propio y el amor al prójimo. Presbíteros Arautos. Recuperado 8 July 2021, a partir de https://presbiteros.arautos.org/2010/04/el-egoismo-el-amor-propio-y-el-amor-al-projimo/

The issues regarding emotions have been debated since ancient times, with Aristotle being a prominent contributor to the subject (Garcés & Giraldo, 2017). Although he did not explicitly formulate a theory of emotions, he left scattered outlines in several of his treatises (Trueba, 2009). Therefore, Aristotle emerges as a pioneer in attempting to rationally explain emotions (Quintanilla, 2007). For some, this might sound unusual or even impossible, as emotions were once considered inexplicable and almost magical forces. By attributing them to the gods, emotions were seen as uncontrollable and even irrational, existing in a distinct and immeasurable realm from the rational. However, Aristotle seeks a rational explanation by integrating cognitive elements, such as beliefs present when people experience emotions (Quintanilla, 2007). Thus, according to Trueba (2009), Aristotle's analysis of emotions responds to a particular philosophical interest and addresses specific problems. In the treatise "On the Soul," the focus is on the relationship between the affections of the soul and the body (Trueba, 2009). Aristotle confronts the dilemma of determining whether there is an act or affection exclusive to the soul, paying special attention to passions and relying on the most recognized theories of his time. In correspondence with Trueba (2009), in ethical treatises, Aristotle addresses passions in the context of his virtue doctrine, while in "Poetics," he does so in relation to his analysis of pathetic tragedy. Between Body and Soul: The Enigma of Emotions In the treatise "On the Soul," the issue of passions or emotions is addressed concerning whether there is any act or affection of the soul that is proper to it (Trueba, 2009). Contemporary theories suggest two opposing definitions of emotions: for physicists, they are bodily phenomena, while for dialecticians, they are dianoetic or mental phenomena. Aristotle rejects both views, considering them partial explanations. The first focuses only on the material principle of affections, and the second addresses only the formal principle. In this sense, Aristotle questions the dialectical conception of emotions because soul affections seem to manifest in the body, such as valor, sweetness, fear, compassion, daring, as well as joy, love, and hatred. The body is simultaneously affected in these cases. However, according to Trueba (2009), this judgment is based on observation and experience. Aristotle argues that the definition of a thing resides in its specific form and that its existence implies that it must necessarily occur in such a type of matter (Trueba, 2009). This argument is based on his theory of causes or first principles and his theory of definition, where he mentions that it must state the essence of things, which does not occur separately from matter. Both theories are linked to his hylomorphic conception of reality (Trueba, 2009). Therefore, for the Stagirite, emotions are generated in the soul and are accompanied by pleasure and pain; the question of the soul does not arise in relation to religious beliefs but is incorporated into the explanation of the phenomenon of life from a naturalistic perspective (Garcés & Giraldo, 2017). In correspondence with Garcés & Giraldo (2017), Aristotle adds that all emotions generated in the soul create movement, concluding that the soul also moves. Aristotle continues reflecting on the soul and points out that the relationship between emotions and movement is not necessary (Garcés & Giraldo, 2017). Although emotional experiences such as sadness, joy, and thought are essentially movements, they all involve being moved. He concludes that the human serves the soul by experiencing these sufferings, considering the soul as the medium through which things are done or felt. Thus, emotions develop as movements in the soul, sometimes originating there and other times directed towards it. This approach emphasizes that emotions are not merely psychic sensations but also somatic (Garcés & Giraldo, 2017). According to Trueba (2009), this is demonstrated by the fact that sometimes, despite violent and palpable excitations, neither anger nor fear is generated, while on other occasions, under the influence of small and imperceptible excitements, commotion occurs. The Essence of Pleasure and Pain Aristotle argues that passions are often accompanied by sensations of pleasure and/or pain, implying some psychophysical disturbance or alteration (Trueba, 2009). For instance, pleasures and pains are often accompanied by warmth and cold in some part or throughout the body. Consequently, sensations of pleasure and pain play a crucial role in Aristotle's conception of emotions. Therefore, sensations of pleasure and pain hold a relevant place in Aristotle's conception of emotions. In the "Nicomachean Ethics," emotions are primarily defined as affections accompanied by pleasure or pain. For example, according to Trueba (2009), Aristotle names passions such as desire, anger, fear, boldness, envy, joy, goodness, hatred, longing, stimulation, compassion, and, in general, all affections linked to pleasure or pain. The above definition bears a resemblance to the commentary in "Rhetoric," although it does not constitute a general definition of emotions (Trueba, 2009). For Aristotle, emotions are what motivate people to change their judgments and become fickle, as pain and pleasure derive from them. However, they are not isolated traits but complementary: people change their minds due to the pleasure or pain they experience in their emotions, simultaneously feeling pleasure or pain along with the judgment they make (Cruz, 2012). Now, to understand each emotion, it is necessary to distinguish three aspects: the state of those experiencing the emotion, those to whom the emotion is usually directed, and the circumstances (Garcés & Giraldo, 2017). According to Garcés & Giraldo (2017), if only one or two of these aspects are considered, but not all, the emotion cannot be inspired. On the other hand, the relationship between passions and sensations of pleasure and pain is a relevant aspect of the psychophysical nature of emotions that has generated discussions (Trueba, 2009). Aristotle takes up Plato's conception of emotions as mixed affections accompanied by pleasure and pain in his treatise "Rhetoric." However, in the "Nicomachean Ethics," he does not emphasize the mixed nature of emotions as much. The difference goes beyond a simple matter of emphasis, as Aristotle's thesis appears formulated significantly differently in the "Nicomachean Ethics." According to Trueba (2009), the conjunction serves as a basis to consider that Aristotle does not imply that emotions in general involve both sensations in all cases. On one hand, it is clear that not all emotions involve a combination of pleasure and pain (Trueba, 2009). Some, such as compassion, shame, fear, envy, and indignation, are defined as painful affections. Shame is defined as regret related to past, present, or future vices, leading to a loss of reputation. On the other hand, Aristotle argues that hatred, unlike anger, does not entail distress or pain, contradicting Plato's idea of emotions as mixed affections. Thus, "Rhetoric" defines many emotions as forms of sorrow or pain, although some of these may be accompanied by pleasure, such as fear with the hope of salvation or anger with the possibility and desire for revenge. This does not mean that the pleasures accompanying these painful affections are indeed an ingredient in them in the sense of mixed feelings. According to Trueba (2009), instead of describing emotions as a mixture of pleasure and pain, one should speak of mixtures of emotions. Emotions and Beliefs Many of Aristotle's definitions of emotions are linked to specific opinions or beliefs (Trueba, 2009). He argues that certain judgments trigger particular emotions, while other judgments exclude certain emotions (Trueba, 2009). For example, people do not make the same judgments when experiencing sadness or happiness, or when experiencing love compared to hatred (Quintanilla, 2007). For Aristotle, beliefs are so fundamental to emotions that the criterion for their distinction lies precisely in the distinctive beliefs associated with them. For instance, in correspondence with Quintanilla (2007), the distinction between fear and sadness lies in the fact that, in the former case, the person believes they will face great harm, while in the latter case, the person believes they have already experienced significant harm, either to themselves or to another person. References Cruz, M. (2012). Aristoteles y Las Emociones. 1library.co. Recuperado 6 July 2021, a partir de https://1library.co/document/zlvx45gy-aristoteles-y-las-emociones.html Garcés, L., & Giraldo, C. (2017). Emociones en Aristóteles: Facultades anímicas en la formación de las opiniones y de los juicios. Redalyc.org. Recuperado 6 July 2021, a partir de https://www.redalyc.org/journal/4137/413755833007/html/ Garcés, L., & Giraldo, C. (2017). Las emociones y las pasiones en Aristóteles: conceptualización e interpretación. Revistaespacios.com. Recuperado 6 July 2021, a partir de https://www.revistaespacios.com/a18v39n04/a18v39n04p26.pdf Quintanilla, P. (2007). LA CONQUISTA ARISTOTÉLICA DE LAS EMOCIONES. Spp.com.pe. Recuperado 6 July 2021, a partir de http://spp.com.pe/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Quintanilla_5.pdf Trueba, C. (2009). La teoría aristotélica de las emociones. Scielo.org.mx. Recuperado 6 July 2021, a partir de http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1665-13242009000200007

Aristotle, the most prominent student of Plato's Academy, is perhaps the philosopher whose ideas have had the most influence in the history of Western thought (Hara, 2017). As is well known, Aristotle was a true polymath, as his knowledge and curiosity allowed him to excel in diverse areas such as logic, science, and philosophy (Sabater, 2018). By exploring works like "Nicomachean Ethics," his description of humans as highly social creatures stands out, emphasizing that friendship is the most satisfying form of coexistence. Although Aristotle lacked access to the secrets of the brain in his time, modern science has revealed the importance of social interaction for brain development, survival, and health (Sabater, 2018). Types of Friendship "Nicomachean Ethics" offers an enlightening insight into happiness and the role of social relationships in daily life (Sabater, 2018). In this work, Aristotle emphasizes the significance of friendship as a valuable good and a driver of a happy life (Sabater, 2018). He considers friendships to be the noblest and freest, based on sincere and voluntary devotion to others, bringing out the best in people (Trujillo, 2018). Aristotle identifies three types of friendships in life, where only one can evolve into a higher form of relationship, free from self-interest and chance (Sabater, 2018). According to Flores (2019), these types are further divided into two, with the first two being accidental and the third more intentional. Interested Friendship It is well known that people instrumentalize each other (Sabater, 2018). Some do it more frequently, others do not understand friendship, and a few see it as a false relationship with the hope of gaining benefits. Although everyone expects something in return, such as support, trust, or sharing good times, some use flattery and manipulation to gain higher benefits, such as social position or recognition (Sabater, 2018). Aristotle does not condemn these interested friendships as evil, selfish, or false, but sees them as the lowest level of any friendship type, as they have a purpose but do not offer the greatest joy or meaning (McCorry, 2019). Therefore, they are not permanent and often disappear when the benefits run out (Flores, 2019). Vázquez (2017) mentions that an example would be university colleagues who help each other with tasks, but the bond can easily break after graduation. Pleasure - Based Friendship Friendship based on pleasure is one of the three types of friendship that everyone is familiar with (Sabater, 2018). This type of friendship is considered common during adolescence and early youth, developing between people who share activities such as sports, outings, parties, and the consumption of drinks, among others (Trujillo, 2018). In short, the connection between people focuses primarily on the desire to live and have fun. Therefore, according to Trujillo (2018), this type of friendship tends to be fleeting unless the involved individuals grow in parallel. Although both accidental friendships, such as interested and pleasure-based, are limited and do not fully encapsulate the meaning of the word "friend," which shares roots with love, they differ in their motivations (Hara, 2017). Interested friendship is characterized by the pursuit of tangible benefits, such as favors, access to connections, or social recognition (Sabater, 2018). On the other hand, in pleasure-based friendship, the goal is simply to enjoy. In other words, these people lean towards empty and superficial hedonism, seeking to share moments of relaxation, cheerful complicity, and pleasant well-being. Therefore, according to Sabater (2018), the strength of this friendship dissolves quickly if the other person needs genuine support in difficult times. The Perfect Friendship According to Aristotle, perfect friendship is the most robust and exceptional, yet still possible (Sabater, 2018). It goes beyond utility or pleasure, involving a sincere appreciation for the other as they are. It is a friendship grounded in goodness, which Aristotle almost compares to a romantic relationship. Perfect friends, those of the heart, are rare but essential in building deep intimacy, where trust is paramount, and experiences, memories, and unbreakable promises are cherished despite time and distance (Sabater, 2018). Therefore, according to Flores (2019), this friendship lacks a specific reason, as its value exists for its own sake, without further motivations. References Flores, M. (2019). Los tres tipos de amistad que existen de acuerdo con Aristóteles. De10. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://de10.com.mx/vivir-bien/los-tres-tipos-de-amistad-que-existen-de-acuerdo-con-aristoteles Hara, L. (2017). Según Aristóteles, entre los 3 tipos de amistad que existen, este es el mejor. PIJAMASURF.COM. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://pijamasurf.com/2017/12/segun_aristoteles_entre_los_3_tipos_de_amistad_que_existen_esta_es_la_mejor/ McCorry, C. (2019). ¿Cuántas clases de amigos tienes? Según Aristóteles, son 3. Aleteia.org | Español - valores con alma para vivir feliz. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://es.aleteia.org/2019/03/25/cuantas-clases-de-amigos-tienes-segun-aristoteles-son-3/ Sabater, V. (2018). 3 tipos de amistad según Aristóteles. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/3-tipos-de-amistad-segun-aristoteles/ Trujillo, Á. (2018). Estos son los 3 tipos de amistad que definió Aristóteles, ¿los reconoces?. muhimu. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://muhimu.es/comunidad/tipos-amistad-aristoteles/ Vázquez, C. (2017). 3 tipos de amistad según Aristóteles. Medium. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://medium.com/@cristhiandvzquez/3-tipos-de-amistad-según-aristóteles-36ab0d1c3bd8

In the narrative of the history of philosophy, Aristotle's theory of knowledge stands out as one of the fundamental intellectual elements in the construction of Western culture (Torres, n.d.). According to Burgos et al. (2020), the perspective on the theory of knowledge in the philosophical realm can be approached from various angles: as a reflection on theoretical conduct, thus forming the theory of scientific knowledge or the theory of science; it can also be interpreted as a contemplation of practical conduct linked to values, taking the form of the theory of values; and thirdly, philosophy can be conceived as a theory about the conception of the universe. Following this line of thought, the theory of science is divided into two branches: the formal or logical, and the material, also known as the theory of knowledge (Burgos et al., 2020). Therefore, in correspondence with Burgos et al. (2020), the theory of knowledge can be characterized as the theory that addresses true thinking, as opposed to logic, which stands as the theory of correct thinking. Senses as the Seed of Knowledge Aristotle  rejected the prior existence of souls and innate knowledge (Abad, 2009). His perspective holds that human knowledge resembles a blank page, devoid of any inherent cognitive content (Abad, 2009). According to the philosopher, the senses are the starting point of all knowledge (Torres, n.d.). Therefore, in accordance with Salgado (2012), Aristotle's theory of knowledge aligns with empiricism, introducing the idea that the perception of the sensible and the particular marks the beginning of knowledge. In Aristotle's approach, perception is considered a fundamental function of life, comparable to nutrition and reproduction (Salgado, 2012). Consequently, the individual human soul plays the crucial role of sensibly understanding the reality that surrounds it (Salgado, 2012). This implies that all the information triggering intellectual activity is contained in the sensory data that reaches the body through the eyes, ears, smell, among others (Torres, n.d.). In this context, Burgos et al. (2020) point out that Aristotelian thinking distances itself from Plato's theory of ideas, for whom, what surrounds individuals cannot be known or generate significant intellectual activity, given that the material is mutable and constantly changing. Weaving Thoughts For Aristotle, the process of knowledge generation begins with sensory stimuli (Torres, n.d.). However, up to this stage, this process is similar to what other forms of animal life experience; this way of knowing is sensory and not exclusive to humans (Burgos et al., 2020). In this sense, human cognition starts with how sensory data is processed to deduce more abstract conclusions from what is perceived through hearing, touch, smell, or taste (Torres, n.d.). Initially, common sense groups the properties of the object or perceived identity to form a mental representation, utilizing people's imaginative capacity (Burgos et al., 2020). According to Torres (n.d.), even though everything begins with perceptual impression, it is crucial that this information goes through a series of mental processes. Building Knowledge Aristotle acknowledges that reality is composed of elements in constant change; for him, knowledge involves the ability to discern the unique nature of each entity (Torres, n.d.). This process of identification entails recognizing the efficient, formal, material, and final causes (Burgos et al., 2020). All these are potentialities that, for Aristotle, reside in matter and enable the understanding of each thing and what it will become (Torres, n.d.). The combination of imagination and memory not only helps retain images of sensory experiences but also provides a foundation for gradually understanding the potentialities, nature, and changes of each thing (Burgos et al., 2020). For example, in line with Torres (n.d.), this allows knowing that a tree can grow from a seed and that parts of the tree are useful for building houses and boats. Abstractions are thus created from sensory impressions (Burgos et al., 2020). In accordance with Torres (n.d.), these abstractions are not conceived as reflections of a reality composed exclusively of pure ideas, as Plato argued, but rather as representations of qualities contained in material elements that make up physical reality. The Creation of Universals Aristotle argues that science addresses the universal, that is, what is permanent (Castillo, 2009). When an idea takes shape, a universal concept of that idea is simultaneously generated, encompassing not only what is directly experienced but also hypothetical and unexperienced elements (Torres, n.d.). In this way, the creation of the universal from impressions occurs through what Aristotle calls the active intellect, while the recognition of the universal in the new forms of sensory stimuli is carried out by the passive intellect (Burgos et al., 2020). In short, according to Abad (2009), the active intellect performs the abstraction of essences, while the passive intellect receives them. Referencias Abad, J. (2009). Historia de la Filosofía. Recuperado 30 June 2021, a partir de https://www.mheducation.es/bcv/guide/capitulo/8448166981.pdf Burgos, R., et al. (2020). Aristóteles: creador de la filosofía de la ciencia y del método científico. Radoctores.es. Recuperado 1 July 2021, a partir de https://www.radoctores.es/doc/08-BURGOS%20et%20al._aristoteles.pdf Castillo, G. (2009). LA UNIDAD DEL SABER: ARISTÓTELES Y LEONARDO POLO. Pirhua.udep.edu.pe. Recuperado 29 June 2021, a partir de https://pirhua.udep.edu.pe/bitstream/handle/11042/1655/Unidad_del_saber_Aristoteles_y_Polo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Salgado, S. (2012). La Filosofía de Aristóteles. Guindo.pntic.mec.es. Recuperado 29 June 2021, a partir de http://guindo.pntic.mec.es/ssag0007/filosofica/aristoteles-duererias.pdf Torres, A. ​La teoría del conocimiento de Aristóteles, en 4 claves. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/teoria-conocimiento-aristoteles

Positive psychology, a trendy topic according to various books (Lemos, 2018), represents one of the most intriguing and encouraging intellectual developments of the last two decades (Saint - Andre, 2021). It focuses on projecting positivity in life with the aim of significantly influencing development and growth in all aspects of the human experience through the recognition of values and life force (Arias, n.d.). However, these books in no way replace the valuable assistance provided by clinical psychologists in their consultations (Lemos, 2018). While positive psychology has found a place on the shelves, the truth is that the idea on which it is based is quite old-fashioned (Lemos, 2018). This is because, according to Crego (2018), some of the ideas of positive psychology have their roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics The Nicomachean Ethics, written by Aristotle in the 4th century BC, shows traces of what is now known as positive psychology (Lemos, 2018). According to this theory, achieving a fulfilled life involves developing virtues, that is, good habits, and cultivating certain strengths. For Aristotle, these strengths are innate traits that enable well-being and happiness. However, not everyone is born with these fundamental strengths necessary for achieving a fulfilled life. For instance, a person who is insecure faces greater challenges than someone naturally inclined to take risks and step out of their comfort zone. Nevertheless, in line with Lemos (2018), Aristotelian theory suggests that through self - control and self-regulation, these strengths can be acquired, albeit requiring an exercise of willpower. Practical Wisdom The Aristotelian concept of practical wisdom, also known as phronesis, is linked to positive psychology (Lemos, 2018). The word phronesis has a complicated and cumbersome etymology (Arias, n.d.). Although commonly associated with prudence, it is more related to discernment for achieving greater personal growth and avoiding behaviors that may hinder one's own happiness and that of others (Crego, 2018). In this context, phronesis is not simply a virtue among others; it plays a fundamental role in orchestrating other virtues to determine the best course of action in a situation and establish principles for behavior. It is, so to speak, the master virtue, essential for other virtues to be effective and to follow a path to happiness without deviations (Crego, 2018). In short, according to Lemos (2018), phronesis is the primary human virtue, enabling individuals to make wiser decisions. Practical wisdom does not emerge instantly; it requires time for reflection and learning about the particular circumstances of a person's life (Crego, 2018). It involves analytical skills, taking pauses to listen, learn, and thoroughly understand situations from a flexible and open perspective. Lastly, in accordance with Crego (2018), practical wisdom drives a strong motivation to do what is right in every situation. The Active Exercise of Happiness Aristotle dedicated time to reflect on the meaning of happiness and how to attain it (Parrish, 2015). Therefore, an idea emerges present in both positive psychology and Aristotle's teachings: achieving a fulfilled life is only possible by adopting new habits and changing attitudes (Lemos, 2018). Moreover, true victory lies in constant practice and perseverance, being the key to attaining the desired well-being (Lemos, 2018). For the philosopher, joy represents the meaning of existence (Arias, n.d.), becoming the guiding principle of moral conduct, i.e., the supreme good that everyone seeks and that subordinates other goods (Gustems & Sánchez, 2015). For Aristotle, happiness is not understood as a psychological state of pleasure but as an activity, the practice of living well. Thus, according to Gustems & Sánchez (2015), happiness is not something that simply happens or is a result of chance; it is something that people must pursue, carry out, and cultivate. The result of this is that well-being cannot exist solely in the mind of each individual: it is a combination of feeling good, finding meaning, having strong relationships, and achieving goals (Saint-Andre, 2021). Therefore, in line with Arias (n.d.), Aristotle made it clear that the degree of satisfaction and joy impacts other aspects of life; that is, happiness contributes to people's well-being and affects health, work, relationships, finances, and other areas of life. References Arias, M. Aportaciones de Aristóteles a la Psicología Positiva. Más Allá de la Tierra. Recuperado 25 June 2021, a partir de https://masalladelatierra.com/aportes-cientificos/aportaciones-de-aristoteles-a-la-psicologia/ Crego, A. (2018). Aristóteles y la Psicología Positiva. Investigación y Ciencia. Recuperado 25 June 2021, a partir de https://www.investigacionyciencia.es/blogs/psicologia-y-neurociencia/52/posts/aristteles-y-la-psicologa-positiva-16192 Gustems, J., & Sánchez, L. (2015). Aportaciones de la Psicología Positiva aplicadas a la formación del profesorado. Recuperado 25 June 2021, a partir de https://dadun.unav.edu/bitstream/10171/39798/1/art1.pdf. Lemos, R. (2018). Aristóteles y su influencia en la psicología positiva. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/aristoteles-y-su-influencia-en-la-psicologia-positiva/ Parrish, E. (2015). Positive Psychology and Aristotle. Bear Market. Recuperado 25 June 2021, a partir de https://bearmarketreview.wordpress.com/2015/05/05/positive-psychology-and-aristotle/ Saint-Andre, P. (2021). Positive Psychology: An Aristotelian Analysis. Stpeter.im. Recuperado 25 June 2021, a partir de https://stpeter.im/writings/aristotle/positive-psychology.html

Aristotle and Plato are some of the most well-known students of rhetoric (Bergstrom, 2020). However, a break in perspectives became evident when Aristotle contradicted his former mentor, proclaiming that rhetoric is the inseparable companion of philosophy, thus becoming the very counterpart of Socratic philosophy (Crider, 2014). The essence of this statement lies in the conviction that, when presenting arguments, all individuals seek to be persuasive (Muelas, 2019). In other words, while expressing their views, people not only aim to present arguments but also to make others adopt their perspective, even before fully evaluating the presented arguments. In summary, according to Muelas (2019), rhetoric focuses on persuading others to adopt the point of view expressed by the one presenting the arguments. Rhetorical Foundations Plato's student's studies focused on rhetoric (Muelas, 2019), defined as the ability to identify what might be persuasive in each particular situation (Rapp, 2010). This discipline is not limited to persuasion alone; it also provides valuable insights into the cognitive characteristics of language and style (Rapp, 2010). Consequently, in line with Floyd (2014), it lays the groundwork for both writers and speakers to effectively construct their arguments. However, this assertion does not imply that the rhetorician has the ability to persuade everyone in any situation (Rapp, 2010). Instead, it more closely resembles the position of a physician who fully understands their art only if they do not neglect any aspect that could contribute to the healing of their patient, albeit aware that they cannot guarantee healing for everyone. Similarly, in correspondence with Rapp (2010), the rhetorician achieves a complete understanding of their method only when they manage to discover and effectively use the various means of persuasion available, albeit with the intrinsic limitation of being unable to convince everyone. In short, rhetoric consists of the ability to persuade others to accept the presented point of view (Muelas, 2019). This ability can be used for good or ill purposes; it can bring significant benefits but also great harm (Rapp, 2010). Although Aristotle acknowledges that his rhetorical art could be misused, he also highlights significant mitigating factors. Firstly, he points out that, in general, all goods, except virtue, can be used incorrectly. Secondly, he argues that Aristotelian rhetoric facilitates the persuasion of the just and good compared to those with opposing opinions. Ultimately, according to Rapp (2010), the risks of misuse are balanced with the potential benefits offered by rhetoric in the style of Aristotle. Methods of Persuasion Pathos In the first instance, pathos involves suffering and experience (Muelas, 2019). Within the framework of Aristotelian rhetoric, this notion becomes relevant when referring to the speaker or writer's skill in evoking emotions and feelings in the audience. Likewise, pathos is closely linked to emotions, aiming to generate sympathy in the public and stimulate their imagination (Muelas, 2019). In short, according to Bergstrom (2020), it is about how emotions influence discourse and conversations. Essentially, the goal of pathos is to cultivate empathy in the audience (Muelas, 2019). By using this strategy, the values, beliefs, and understanding of the arguer intricately intertwine, conveyed to the audience through careful narrative construction. Hence, various studies support the notion that empathy not only plays a crucial role in improving communication but also contributes to strengthening emotional bonds between people (Muelas, 2019). In this sense, the speaker must evoke emotions in the audience, as emotions have the power to influence judgments (Rapp, 2010). For example, Rapp (2010) states that, for a judge in a friendly mood, the person they are about to judge may seem to act not wrong or only to a small extent; but for an angry judge, the same person will appear to do the opposite. Following this line of thought, the use of pathos stands out when the arguments to be presented are controversial (Muelas, 2019). Since such arguments often lack logic, success will depend on the ability to empathize with the audience. For instance, Muelas (2019) mentions that in an argument in favor of the legal prohibition of abortion, vivid expressions can be used to describe babies and the innocence of a new life, aiming to evoke sadness and concern in the audience. Ethos In the second instance, ethos refers to character, originated from the word ethikos, denoting the moral and revealing moral personality (Muelas, 2019). For speakers and writers, ethos is not just an abstract notion but is concretely manifested through their credibility and the relationship they establish with the audience (Muelas, 2019). That is, the way ethos manifests itself has a direct impact on how the speaker or writer reaches the audience (Bergstrom, 2020). According to Téllez (2016), if the audience does not perceive the speaker as a trustworthy figure, any attempt at persuasion is hindered, even in the presence of logical arguments or effective non-verbal cues. Ultimately, according to Aristotle's rhetoric, ethos is crucial for arousing interest in the audience (Muelas, 2019). To achieve this, the tone and style of the message are fundamental. Additionally, character is also influenced by the arguer's reputation, which is independent of the message (Muelas, 2019). For example, the speaker may be an expert in the field, have a qualifying degree, or a trophy demonstrating mastery of the discipline being described (Téllez, 2016). Likewise, according to Muelas (2019), addressing an audience as peers, rather than as passive characters, increases the likelihood of active participation in discussions. Logos In the last instance, logos means word, discourse, or reason (Muelas, 2019). In the realm of persuasion, it is crucial that logos constitutes the logical foundation supporting the speaker's claims since it refers to any effort to appeal to intellect, i.e., logical arguments (Muelas, 2019). In short, logos refers to how an argument is structured and how logic is employed (Bergstrom, 2020). Thus, logical thinking takes two forms: deductive and inductive. On the one hand, deductive reasoning establishes that if A and B are true, then the intersection of A and B must also be true (Muelas, 2019). On the other hand, induction is defined as the process that goes from the particular to the universal (Rapp, 2010). According to Muelas (2019), this type of reasoning uses premises, but the conclusion is simply an expectation and, due to its subjective nature, does not necessarily have to be considered true. The Current Rhetoric In Aristotle's rhetoric, logos was his preferred argumentation technique (Muelas, 2019). However, in everyday arguments, pathos and ethos play a crucial role. The combination of these three elements not only makes essays more convincing but also becomes the primary focus in discussion teams, as the right words can address uncertainties about global prominence (Muelas, 2019; Bergstrom, 2020). Those who master these techniques have the ability to persuade others to take specific actions, such as buying a product or service (Muelas, 2019). Nevertheless, in accordance with Muelas (2019), pathos seems to have a more significant influence today since populist speeches, aiming to evoke emotions rather than provide logical arguments, appear to be more effective. This phenomenon is clearly evident in the realm of fake news (Muelas, 2019). These pieces of information, often lacking a solid logical structure, manage to capture the audience's attention due to their ability to generate empathy. It is necessary to highlight, in line with Muelas (2019), that awareness of these rhetorical tactics can strengthen an individual's ability to discern between truthful and deceptive information, thereby contributing to a more informed and critical audience. References Bergstrom, G. (2020). How Does Aristotle Tie Into Smart Public Relations Tactics?. The Balance Small Business. Recuperado 4 June 2021, a partir de https://www.thebalancesmb.com/three-parts-rhetoric-three-types-of-debates-2295955 Crider, S. (2014). Aristotle’s Rhetoric for Everybody. Artsofliberty.udallas.edu. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de https://artsofliberty.udallas.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Introductory-Rhetoric.pdf Floyd, C. (2014). Aristotle's Rhetoric: The Power of Words and the Continued Relevance of Persuasion. Core.ac.uk. Recuperado 1 June 2021, a partir de https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/37765798.pdf Muelas, R. (2019). Pathos, ethos y logos: la retórica de Aristóteles - La Mente es Maravillosa. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 1 June 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/pathos-ethos-y-logos-la-retorica-de-aristoteles/ Rapp, C. (2010). Aristotle’s Rhetoric. Plato.stanford.edu. Recuperado 1 June 2021, a partir de https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Téllez, N. (2016). Ethos, Pathos, Logos. La retórica de Aristóteles para persuadir. Nachotellez.com. Recuperado 23 June 2021, a partir de https://nachotellez.com/es/ethos-pathos-logos-aristoteles-persuasion/

During the last four or five decades, the question of the role and presence of dialectics in Aristotle's philosophical conception has occupied a central place in scholarly research (Vigo, 2016). Although the debate has continued to this day, the vast amount of literature on the subject has made it almost overwhelming (Vigo, 2016). In fact, Gourinat (2002) highlights that since the 1st century BC, Cicero conceived Aristotle's Topics as a treatise focused on argumentation, omitting any reference to dialogue. However, the more radical variants of the dialectical approach did not have as significant an impact on further research as their prominent presence in the debate would suggest, as they have often been strongly criticized (Vigo, 2016). On the contrary, Vigo (2016) asserts that what led to the emergence and development of the dialectical approach was a growing diffusion of the general idea that dialectics played an important, even decisive, role in Aristotle's philosophical method. The repeated reference to the dialectical nature of the Aristotelian method often became an obvious statement, lacking content as it relied on a concept that was too broad and imprecise, and on a vague understanding of the contribution dialectics should make to genuine knowledge (Vigo, 2016). However, according to Zanatta (2008), Aristotle reveals the fields in which dialectics is important and asserts that its utility is not limited to intellectual work or being a notable aid in speaking at political meetings and in courts. Instead, this art is beneficial even for philosophical sciences. Pilars of Thought Dialectics stands out as one of the most prominent methods of discussion, based on the exchange of questions and answers (Gourinat, 2002). Contrary to what some may think, this approach is not designed for use by ill-intentioned individuals nor does it present itself as a tool for resolving emotional disputes (Montague, 2019). Instead, dialectics is configured as a space for dialogue between two individuals with the shared goal of understanding the logical way of thinking. In short, in correspondence with Montague (2019), the fundamental purpose of dialectics lies in confirming or invalidating the definitions presented in an argument, making it a valuable tool for the exploration and validation of ideas. In the context of laying the groundwork for any process of definition, it begins with something elementary and clear, such as the assertion that "this is the same as that" and "this is different from that" (Montague, 2019). An illustrative example of this principle is presented when comparing the similarity and difference between humans and bonobos. According to Montague (2019), this comparison is made because the concepts of "same" and "different" constitute the foundations of definition, thus serving as the fundamental pillars of cognition and categorization. These pillars are essential for the process of recognition and definition of various entities. Dialectics Without Borders In the philosophical realm, it can be unequivocally asserted that both Plato and Aristotle are influenced by the transcendental presence of Socrates and his maieutic method (Cañas, 2010). However, Aristotle's dialectics do not serve the same functions, purposes, or hold the same status as in Plato's dialogues (Campos, 2018). Interestingly, Campos (2018) suggests that Aristotle seems to harbor a certain disdain for writing, which could be interpreted as a disconnection or even a rejection of Plato's dialectic. Unlike Plato, who establishes a connection between dialectics and science or knowledge, Aristotle takes a different perspective by considering it as a fundamental part of an analysis preceding science (Cañas, 2010). Furthermore, this philosopher conceptualized dialectics as verbal argumentation aimed not only at presenting ideas but also at contradicting and objecting to the opponent. In line with Cañas (2010), this Aristotelian conception of dialectics finds its roots in various sources, including Zeno, sophistry, and eristics. However, dissatisfied with these previous proposals, Aristotle decided to dedicate a complete essay to this topic, "The Topics" (Cañas, 2010). At the outset, he mentions that the goal is to find a method for discussing any problem arising from merely probable propositions and to teach not to contradict one's own assertions during a discussion. Here, he argues that dialectical reasoning is the art of argumentation, not based on necessary premises that are obvious in themselves but on the plausible (Cañas, 2010). In other words, according to López (2017), dialectics is that part of logic that allows reasoning about any problem with plausible arguments, i.e., probable but not proven. Therefore, dialectics does not seek the truth of premises but their coherence with a generally accepted opinion, supported by a criterion of authority (Cañas, 2010). In other words, Aristotle's intention regarding dialectics could not be the truth but the acceptance of truth. This is because dialectics is protreptic or exhortative, not strictly philosophical. In short, according to Cañas (2010), dialectics is an instrument that guides toward the truth, providing the basis for the subsequent acquisition of philosophical science. For this reason, Aristotle establishes a clear distinction between scientific or philosophical reasoning, oriented towards the search for truth and based on syllogistic demonstration, and dialectical reasoning, whose main purpose is to overcome the opponent during debate (Cañas, 2010). Dialectical reasoning is one of the forms of dialogical reasoning but is not exclusively defined as a form of dialogue (Gourinat, 2002). Consequently, dialectical reasoning is not dialectics itself but something dialectical. Although the term "dialectical" is a substantiated use of the adjective that presupposes the term "dialectical method." In short, in correspondence with Gourinat (2002), if dialectical reasoning is a form of dialogical reasoning, then dialectics itself must be the method that allows thinking in a dialogue in a certain way. In this way, dialectics, like politics and ethics, is not an exact science; nevertheless, it can be grounded in general principles common to science or art, although it is not supported by any scientific knowledge or specialty (Cañas, 2010). These belong to the realm of art or technique, focusing on practical thought within the variability of human life (Cañas, 2010). In short, in correspondence with Montague (2019), for Aristotle, dialectics is a process of discovery and pedagogy that takes place between two individuals using logical arguments. Woven Essences The fundamental concept underlying the understanding of any entity lies in its distinctive properties, which not only define it but also place it in a specific genre, thus marking its unique identity in relation to other elements of that genre (Montague, 2019). This process of classification, operating in both directions, emerges as the key to achieving a profound understanding of the inherent essence of anything. Therefore, in correspondence with Montague (2019), the quest for this essence becomes a task of paramount importance as it provides the key to unraveling the fundamental and distinctive aspects of entities as a whole. For example, the human species, a member of the primate genre, stands out notably due to its innate ability to use highly complex language (Montague, 2019). Thus, through a dual process involving the identification of the genre to which they belong and the prominent differentiation based on species-specific characteristics, a fundamental definition of human can be elaborated: a primate with language. According to Montague (2019), this definition encapsulates the very essence of what it means to be human. The process of defining something through its genre and species is derived, though not limited, to the practice of biology (Montague, 2019). Likewise, this same process can be applied to define concepts, such as "true" and "false." Although these terms seem to be opposites, both are concerned with the validity of what they describe, as they belong to the genre of statements about validity. Therefore, according to Montague (2019), the definition of true is, consequently, a positive assertion about validity. References Campos, V. (2018). Peligroso Suplemento: Dialéctica y Retórica en Aristóteles. Scielo.Recuperado 1 June 2021, a partir de https://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0718-84712018000100027 Cañas, R. (2010). La Dialéctica en la Filosofía Griega. Redalyc.org. Recuperado 31 May2021, a partir de https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/666/66620589003.pdf Gourinat, J. (2002). Diálogo y Dialéctica en Los Tópicos y las Refutaciones Sofísticas de Aristóteles. Dadun.unav.edu. Recuperado 1 June 2021, a partir de https://dadun.unav.edu/bitstream/10171/816/5/2.%20DI%C3%81LOGO%20Y%20DIAL%C3%89CTICA%20EN%20LOS%20T%C3%93PICOS%20Y%20LAS%20REFUTACIONES%20...%2C%20JEANB.%20G0UR1NAT.pdf López, L. (2017). Dialéctica 101: Aristóteles. Luis Felip. Recuperado 31 May 2021, apartir de https://luisfelip.net/2017/11/28/dialectica-101-aristoteles/ Montague, B. (2019). On Aristotle's Dialectical Method. The Ecologist. Recuperado 1June 2021, a partir de https://theecologist.org/2019/oct/07/aristotles-dialectical-method#:~:text=Dialectic%20is%20a%20process%20of,logical%20argument%2C%20according%20to%20Aristotle.&text=It%20differs%20from%20rhetoric%20in,a%20group%2C%20or%20a%20crowd. Vigo, A. (2016). Filosofía y Dialéctica en Aristóteles. Un Enfoque Sinóptico.Archivos.juridicas.unam.mx. Recuperado 31 May 2021, a partir dehttps://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/9/4281/29.pdf Zanatta, M. (2008). Diálectica y Ciencia en Aristóteles. Dadun.unav.edu. Recuperado 1June 2021, a partir dehttps://dadun.unav.edu/bitstream/10171/799/5/1.%20DIAL%C3%89CTICA%20Y%20CIENCIA%20EN%20ARIST%C3%93TELES%2C%20MARCELLO%20ZANATTA.pdf

Aristotle's logic enjoyed early success and maintained its dominant influence in the philosophical world from the Middle Ages until the 19th century (Groarke, n.d.). However, everything changed rapidly when modern logicians adopted a new, more mathematical form of logic, casting aside what they deemed an obsolete and clumsy method of syllogisms. Groarke (n.d.) notes that while Aristotle's detailed and rich explanation of logic differs from current approaches, it is not merely a historical curiosity. Instead, it provides an alternative for addressing logic and continues to offer critical perspectives on contemporary issues. The Subject of Logic: Syllogisms Aristotle focuses on a central idea: deduction (Smith, 2020). This is essentially reasoning where, by assuming certain things, something different inevitably results from those assumptions. His most well-known contribution is the theory of inference, commonly referred to as syllogistics. This theory deals with inferences with two premises, each being a categorical sentence, sharing a common term and leading to a categorical conclusion that includes only those two terms not shared by the premise (Smith, 2020). In short, according to Hintikka & Spade (2020), Aristotle confines himself to arguments with two premises and one conclusion, all being categorical propositions. In this way, Aristotle designates the term shared by the premises as the "middle term," the term that is the predicate of the conclusion he calls the "major term," and the term that is the subject of the conclusion he calls the "minor term" (Smith, 2020). The middle term must appear as the subject or predicate in each premise, and this can happen in three ways: the middle term can be the subject of one premise and the predicate of the other, the predicate of both premises, or the subject of both premises (Smith, 2020). In short, according to Hintikka & Spade (2020), the subject and predicate of the conclusion are present in each of the premises, along with a third term, the middle, which is in both premises but not in the conclusion. From Words to Propositions Aristotle believed that not all reasoning centered on words (Groarke, n.d.). However, words are a good starting point for studying his logic, which focuses on how arguments are evaluated, composed of statements that, in turn, are made up of words. In Aristotelian logic, the most basic statement is a proposition, a complete sentence that asserts something. Ideally, according to Groarke (n.d.), a proposition consists of at least three words: a subject (a word that names a substance), a predicate (a word that names a property), and a connecting verb, which logicians call the copula. Paradigmatically, the subject would be considered a secondary substance, a natural division of primary substances, and the predicate would be a necessary or essential property (Groarke, n.d.). However, a too restrictive metaphysical idea about the terms of a proposition seems to limit intelligent discourse. For example, someone claims that "anger is not ethical." But anger is not a substance; it is a property of a substance, that is, an organism. Still, qualities can be attributed to anger, such as being unethical, difficult to control, and quite familiar. Of course, producing propositions is not enough; what is sought are true propositions. According to Groarke (n.d.), Aristotle believed that only propositions are true or false, at least concerning linguistic expression, as they involve combining words into complete propositions that intend to assert something about the world. Aristotle suggests that a proposition must be either an affirmation or a negation; not both (Groarke, n.d.). Therefore, he does not recognize sentence compounds, such as conjunctions and disjunctions, as single affirmations (Smith, 2020). He points out that propositions can make claims about the necessary, the possible, or the impossible (Groarke, n.d.). An illustrative example is the hypothetical naval battle, where the necessary truth of the proposition does not guarantee the certainty of future events. For instance, the existence of a naval battle tomorrow does not determine the truth of any of the alternatives. So, the necessity attached to the proposition "there will or will not be a naval battle tomorrow" does not transfer to the assertion "there will be a naval battle tomorrow" or the assertion "there will not be a naval battle tomorrow." In summary, according to Groarke (n.d.), Aristotle emphasizes that personal beliefs about the future do not determine the truth of individual propositions. Having established the proper logical form of a proposition, Aristotle proceeds to classify different types of propositions (Groarke, n.d.). He begins by differentiating between particular terms, which refer to individual things, and universal terms, which refer to a group of things. For example, the name "Socrates" is a particular term because it refers to a single human being, while the word "spiders" is a universal term, applying to all members of the group "spiders." Therefore, Aristotle realizes that universal terms can refer to both parts and entire groups. For example, it can be asserted that all spiders have eight legs or that only some have book lungs. According to Groarke (n.d.), in the first case, a property applies to the entire group referred to by the universal term; in the second case, the property applies only to a part of the group. So, using Aristotelian language, a universal term can predicate a property universally or non-universally in relation to the group it refers to (Groarke, n.d.). This gives rise to four types of categorical propositions that establish relationships between two categories or types. Each categorical proposition has a quantity representing whether it is a universal or particular predication, as well as a quality that affirms or denies the specific predication. Consequently, contemporary logicians distinguish between four logical possibilities: universal affirmation, universal negation, particular affirmation, and particular negation. However, it is worth noting that these possibilities are not always mutually exclusive. Therefore, according to Groarke (n.d.), Aristotle explored how these propositions relate to each other. The first states that contradictory propositions have opposite values; if one is true, the other is false, and vice versa (Groarke, n.d.). For example, if it is true that all birds lay eggs, then it is false that some birds do not. The second indicates that contrary propositions cannot both be true but can both be false. For example, the statements "all politicians tell lies" and "no politician tells lies" cannot both be true, but both can be false. The third implies that the truth of a universal proposition requires the truth of another particular proposition. For example, if all cheetahs are fast, then at least one must be fast; that is, "some cheetahs are fast" is true. The fourth points out that subcontrary propositions cannot both be false (Groarke, n.d.). For example, "some men have beards" and "some men do not have beards" are both true. Finally, traditional logicians, inspired by Aristotle, identified immediate inferences to derive new propositions by rearranging terms (Groarke, n.d.). Firstly, subalternation is a clear example of immediate inference, where terms are exchanged to obtain a new affirmation. For example, once it is known that no circle is a triangle, it is known that no triangle is a circle. In obversion, the predicate term is denied while being replaced with the opposite term. For example, once it is known that some students are happy, it is known that some students are unhappy. Finally, in contraposition, both terms are denied, and their order is reversed. For example, according to Groarke (n.d.), once it is known that all voters are adults, it is known that all children cannot vote. Definition Aristotle left a significant mark on Western thought, especially with his theory of syllogism (Smith, 2020). It is interesting to note that, even though Aristotle did not use the term "logic," this concept emerged later in the time of Cicero, initially with the meaning of dialectic (López, 2017). Aristotle referred to this branch of knowledge as "analytic," conceiving it as an integral part of disciplined inquiry, not as an independent and self-sufficient subject (Groarke, n.d.; López, 2017). According to Navarro & Pardo (2009), logic, later recognized as the specific knowledge of the formal rules of correct reasoning, had its beginnings with the classification of Aristotle's writings on this subject under the name Órganon, establishing the consideration of logic as an independent science, essential for all other disciplines. Logic in Aristotle's writings is not considered as a science, but rather as a set of observations about logos (Navarro & Pardo, 2009). In simple terms, logos refers to expressing something about something, understood not as the arbitrary action of a subject choosing words to make a judgment, but as the way things manifest in their truth and appear in their being. According to Navarro & Pardo (2009), this implies that for Aristotle, there is no separation between the organization of thought and the order of things, as logos refers jointly and inseparably to both spheres, whose separation could only be falsehood itself. In short, Aristotle did not see logic as a way to prove that humans can have knowledge, thus dismissing excessive skepticism (Groarke, n.d.). His perspective was that logic should develop a coherent system to investigate, classify, and evaluate correct and incorrect forms of reasoning (Groarke, n.d.). Therefore, he did not see a difference between logic, the organization of thought, and ontology, the order of things, as he considered logic itself to be ontological (Navarro & Pardo, 2009). According to Hintikka & Spade (2020), this background helps understand why logical inferences are psychologically necessary for Aristotle. Axioms During the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, scholars who saw themselves as followers of the Aristotelian and medieval tradition in logic often emphasized the laws of thought as the foundation of all logic (Groarke, n.d.). It would be unfair to say that these ideas solely originate from Aristotle or that he consciously presented a theory based only on these laws. Instead, Aristotle's theory assumes these principles and discusses or alludes to them in his work. According to Groarke (n.d.), traditional logicians considered these principles obvious, necessary for logical discourse to be possible. The common list of logical laws includes three axioms (Groarke, n.d.). The law of identity means that things are identical to themselves. For example, something cannot be both white and not white simultaneously. The law of non-contradiction states that logically correct propositions cannot assert and deny the same thing (Groarke, n.d.). An example is that contradictory statements cannot be true simultaneously (Groarke, n.d.). Finally, the law of excluded middle holds that every proposition must be true or false, not both or neither. In line with Groarke (n.d.), since every proposition must be true or false, it does not necessarily follow that we can actually know whether a particular proposition is true or false. Categories According to Aristotle in his "Categories," the world is composed of substances, meaning individual things separated with different characteristics or properties (Groarke, n.d.). Aristotle identifies two types of primary substances, like a human or a trout, which are independent objects composed of matter and characterized by their form; and secondary substances, which are larger groups, species, or genera to which these individual organisms belong. For Aristotle, as per Groarke (n.d.), attributing correct properties to secondary substances indirectly involves attributing those properties to primary substances or individual things. In the same line of thought, Aristotle lists ten different ways of describing something (Groarke, n.d.). These categories include substance, quantity, quality, relation, where, when, being in a position, owning, doing, or undergoing or being affected by something (Groarke, n.d.). Substance refers to the real and existing thing perceived through the senses (Montague, 2019), while the other categories are considered accidents that describe the substantive (Montague, 2019). According to Groarke (n.d.), in "Topics," he includes the same list but replaces substance with essence. Fallacies In a brief text titled "Sophistical Refutations," Aristotle introduces a theory on logical fallacies that has had a significant impact (Groarke, n.d.). While his approach is concise and somewhat obscure, there is some disagreement among scholars about the exact interpretation. Aristotle views fallacies as examples of deceptive reasoning; they are not merely errors but hidden mistakes. In other words, according to Groarke (n.d.), a fallacy is an incorrect reasoning strategy that gives the illusion of being solid or somehow conceals the underlying problem. Aristotle categorizes fallacies into two main types: those that depend on language or verbal fallacies, and those that are independent of language or material fallacies (Groarke, n.d.). Language-dependent fallacies include: homonymy or verbal equivocation; ambiguity (amphiboly or grammatical equivocation); composition (confusing parts with a whole); division (confusing a whole with parts); accent or error due to mispronunciation; and figure of speech (ambiguity resulting from the form of an expression). Additionally, according to Groarke (n.d.), language-independent fallacies include: accident (overlooking exceptions); reverse accident (hasty generalization or inadequate qualification); irrelevant conclusion; affirmation of the consequent (assuming that an effect guarantees the presence of a possible cause); begging the question; false cause; and complex question (disguising two or more questions as one). References Bustamante, G. (2008). Los tres principios de la lógica aristotélica: ¿son del mundo o del hablar?. Scielo. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/folios/n27/n27a03.pdf Hintikka, J. (2020). History of Logic | Ancient, Medieval, Modern, & Contemporary Logic. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 14 June 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-logic López, L. (2017). Dialéctica 101: Aristóteles. Luis Felip. Recuperado 31 May 2021, a partir de https://luisfelip.net/2017/11/28/dialectica-101-aristoteles/ Montague, B. (2019). The nature of Aristotle's logic. The Ecologist. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de https://theecologist.org/2019/jul/18/nature-aristotles-logic Navarro, J., & Pardo, J. (2009). Aristóteles. Lógica y ontología. Filosofia.net. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de https://www.filosofia.net/materiales/sofiafilia/hf/soff_28.html Groarke, L. Aristotle: Logic. Iep.utm.edu. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de https://iep.utm.edu/aris-log/#:~:text=Aristotle%20does%20not%20believe%20that,and%20bad%20forms%20of%20reasoning. Smith, R. (2020). Aristotle’s Logic. Plato.stanford.edu. Recuperado 3 June 2021, a partir de https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/