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Nuestro proceso neuropsicológico está diseñado para brindarte una comprensión profunda, clara y personalizada de tus capacidades cognitivas. Se desarrolla en tres etapas, con una fase clave que incluye entre 3 y 4 sesiones completamente adaptadas a ti. Sabemos que cada persona es única, por eso no aplicamos pruebas de forma generalizada, sino que nos enfocamos en las áreas que realmente necesitan atención. Si lo que te preocupa es la memoria, la atención o cualquier otra función específica, centramos nuestros esfuerzos ahí. El objetivo es darte un análisis riguroso, confiable y útil que realmente te ayude a entender tu situación y tomar decisiones informadas sobre tu bienestar. ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Reserva tu espacio. Agenda fácilmente tu primera sesión de dos horas desde nuestra página web o por WhatsApp. Tú eliges el horario que mejor se adapte a tu rutina. Paso 2: Preparación para la evaluación. Antes de la sesión, te orientaremos con información clave para que llegues preparado. Estar descansado y tranquilo es lo ideal para que el proceso sea efectivo desde el inicio. Paso 3: Evaluación cognitiva. En las sesiones aplicamos pruebas neuropsicológicas estandarizadas que nos permiten conocer con precisión tu desempeño en áreas como la memoria, la atención, el lenguaje, las funciones ejecutivas, entre otras. Paso 4: Análisis y retroalimentación. Te entregaremos un análisis claro, detallado y sin tecnicismos, explicando tus fortalezas cognitivas y las áreas que requieren acompañamiento. Nuestro objetivo es que comprendas cada resultado y sepas cómo puede influir en tu vida diaria. Paso 5: Plan de intervención. A partir de los resultados, diseñamos un plan de intervención totalmente personalizado, con orientaciones prácticas, recomendaciones específicas y estrategias que podrás aplicar desde el primer momento. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Atención personalizada: Adaptamos todo el proceso a ti, desde la elección de pruebas hasta el diseño del plan de intervención. Evaluación completa: Trabajamos con herramientas estandarizadas que permiten una valoración confiable de todas tus funciones cognitivas. Expertos en neuropsicología: Contamos con un equipo profesional altamente capacitado, con formación especializada y una gran experiencia clínica.

Nuestro proceso de evaluación neuropsicológica ofrece una atención integral y personalizada para comprender tu situación en detalle y brindarte respuestas claras con un plan de acción efectivo. Comienza con una primera sesión de historia clínica, donde durante una hora exploramos tu motivo de consulta, trayectoria personal, escolar y familiar, así como otros factores relevantes para estructurar una evaluación ajustada a tus necesidades. Luego, aplicamos pruebas neuropsicológicas específicas para analizar funciones cognitivas clave, identificando fortalezas y áreas a mejorar con un enfoque preciso y detallado. Finalmente, recibirás un informe completo con los hallazgos obtenidos y recomendaciones personalizadas, explicadas de manera clara para orientarte en los próximos pasos y ayudarte a tomar decisiones informadas sobre tu bienestar. ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Selecciona tu horario. Elige el día y la hora que mejor se adapten a tu disponibilidad. Puedes hacerlo fácilmente a través de nuestra página web o enviándonos un mensaje por WhatsApp. Paso 2: Confirma tu cita. Una vez seleccionado el horario, recibirás una confirmación con los detalles de la sesión y algunas recomendaciones para aprovechar al máximo tu evaluación. Paso 3: Asiste a tu sesión El día de la cita, te recibirás en un espacio seguro, donde un profesional altamente capacitado te guiará en cada paso del proceso. Nos aseguraremos de que te sientas en confianza para expresar cualquier inquietud y recibirás una atención enfocada en brindarte respuestas y soluciones concretas. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Profesionales altamente especializados: Nuestro equipo está compuesto por expertos en neuropsicología clínica con amplia experiencia en evaluación y diagnóstico de diversas condiciones cognitivas y emocionales. Confidencialidad y respeto: Sabemos lo importante que es la privacidad en un proceso como este. Toda la información que compartas será tratada con absoluta reserva y profesionalismo. Evaluaciones precisas y basadas en evidencia científica: Utilizamos pruebas neuropsicológicas estandarizadas y actualizadas, lo que nos permite brindarte resultados confiables y recomendaciones alineadas con las últimas investigaciones en neurociencia. Atención personalizada y orientación integral: Más que una evaluación, este es un proceso diseñado para comprender tus necesidades y brindarte estrategias efectivas para mejorar tu calidad de vida. Nos aseguramos de explicarte todo de manera clara.

¿Te gustaría mejorar tu memoria, concentración y agilidad mental? Nuestro programa de Estimulación Neuropsicológica está diseñado para activar y fortalecer tus funciones cognitivas a través de actividades especializadas que desafían y optimizan el rendimiento de tu cerebro. Con un enfoque totalmente personalizado, este servicio te permitirá mantener tu mente activa, prevenir el deterioro cognitivo y potenciar tus habilidades mentales a través de estrategias respaldadas por la neurociencia. ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Reserva tu espacio. Inicia tu proceso reservando una sesión de 1 hora. Puedes hacerlo fácilmente a través de nuestra página web o enviándonos un mensaje por WhatsApp. Paso 2: Evaluación personalizada. En las primeras sesiones, realizamos una evaluación detallada para conocer tu nivel cognitivo y determinar qué áreas necesitan ser estimuladas. Esto nos permite diseñar una estrategia específica para ti. Paso 3: Diseño de un plan exclusivo para ti. Cada cerebro es único, por lo que creamos un programa a medida con ejercicios dirigidos a fortalecer la memoria, la atención, el razonamiento y otras habilidades cognitivas clave. Paso 4: Sesiones dinámicas y efectivas. A través de actividades diseñadas científicamente, como rompecabezas, ejercicios de atención plena, retos mentales y juegos interactivos, te ayudamos a entrenar tu mente de manera divertida y desafiante. Paso 5: Seguimiento y ajuste del plan. Monitoreamos tu progreso en cada etapa, ajustando las actividades según tu evolución para asegurarnos de que obtienes los mejores resultados. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Equipo de expertos en neuropsicología: Contamos con profesionales altamente capacitados que garantizan una intervención efectiva y personalizada. Enfoque individualizado: Cada sesión está diseñada de acuerdo con tus necesidades y objetivos, asegurando que cada ejercicio tenga un impacto real en tu rendimiento cognitivo. Compromiso con tu bienestar: Más que un servicio, ofrecemos un acompañamiento continuo para que sientas mejoras reales en tu día a día. ¡No esperes más para fortalecer tu mente! Descubre cómo nuestro programa de Estimulación Neuropsicológica puede ayudarte a mejorar tu capacidad mental y optimizar tu calidad de vida. ¡Agenda tu cita hoy y comienza a potenciar tu cerebro!

M itochondria, found in almost all eukaryotic cells, play an essential role in cellular metabolism (Megías et al., 2023). These double-membrane structures can grow, divide, fuse, and alter their morphology according to the cell’s needs. Their origin dates back to an endosymbiotic association between ancestral respiratory alpha-proteobacteria and archaeal lineages, which gave rise to eukaryotic cells. Although their principal function is energy production, Megías et al. (2023) note that they also participate in various cellular processes that contribute to the organism’s proper functioning. ¿Qué son las Mitocondrias? M itochondria are essential organelles in eukaryotic cells, as they play a key role in producing the energy required for cellular function (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Their elongated shape and double membrane with numerous internal folds allow specialized proteins to facilitate the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy currency. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies according to its energy demands (Montagud Rubio, 2020). In line with Montagud Rubio (2020), tissues with high metabolic demand, such as the liver, typically contain more of these organelles because hepatocytes require a constant energy supply for essential enzymatic processes. Origen Mitocondrial In 1980, Lynn Margulis revitalized an old theory about the origin of this organelle and reformulated it as the endosymbiotic hypothesis (Montagud Rubio, 2020). According to this hypothesis, about 1.5 billion years ago, a prokaryotic cell capable of generating energy from organic nutrients using molecular oxygen as an oxidant fused with — or was engulfed by — another prokaryotic cell, or possibly an early eukaryotic cell , without being digested. Montagud Rubio (2020) points out that this phenomenon is supported by observations showing that some bacteria can engulf others without compromising their own viability. The engulfed cell then established a symbiotic relationship with the host, providing ATP in exchange for a stable, nutrient-rich environment (Montagud Rubio, 2020). This mutual benefit led to the integration of the engulfed cell as an indispensable component of the host cell, giving rise to the mitochondrion. Montagud Rubio (2020) further strengthens the hypothesis by highlighting morphological similarities between free-living bacteria and mitochondria: both are elongated, possess analogous membranes, and—most importantly—contain circular DNA. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is notably different from nuclear DNA, suggesting the existence of two distinct genetic entities. S tructural and Functional Characteristics Mitochondria are small structures, measuring between 0.5 and 1 μm in diameter and up to 8 μm in length (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Their semi-spherical to elongated shape varies according to cellular demands. The number of mitochondria in a cell is determined by its energy requirements, so cells with higher energy consumption contain more of these organelles. Collectively, the cell’s mitochondrial population is called the “chondriome.” Each mitochondrion is bounded by two membranes with distinct enzymatic activities, dividing its internal architecture into three compartments: the cytosolic side (intermembrane space), the intermembrane space, and the mitochondrial matrix, where key energy-producing processes occur (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Outer Membrane The outer mitochondrial membrane is a lipid bilayer that permits the passage of ions, metabolites, and various polypeptides (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Its structure contains specialized proteins called porins, which form a voltage-dependent anion channel. These channels facilitate the transit of large molecules up to 5,000 daltons in weight and approximately 20 ångströms in diameter. Unlike other mitochondrial structures, the outer membrane has a limited role in enzymatic or transport processes. Nevertheless, Montagud Rubio (2020) reports that its composition is 60% – 70% protein , contributing to its functionality within the cell. Inner Membrane The inner mitochondrial membrane is composed of approximately 80% protein and is distinguished by its high selectivity, since it contains no pores (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Its structure houses numerous enzymatic complexes and transmembrane transport systems, which play a fundamental role in translocating molecules from one compartment to another within the cell. Mitochondrial Cristae The inner membrane of the mitochondrion forms multiple inward folds known as mitochondrial cristae (Megías et al., 2023). These structures can take three main morphological forms: discoidal, tubular and flattened. Their protein composition differs from the rest of the inner membrane, suggesting functional specialization within the mitochondrion (Megías et al., 2023). The number of cristae correlates with cellular activity, as they significantly increase the surface available for the binding of proteins essential to various metabolic processes (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Moreover, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), these cristae connect to the inner membrane at specific points that facilitate metabolite transport between mitochondrial compartments. Among their primary functions, mitochondrial cristae are key players in oxidative metabolism, particularly in the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (Montagud Rubio, 2020). The respiratory chain includes four fixed enzymatic complexes and two mobile electron carriers. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), the proton channel and ATP synthase participate in adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, while various transport proteins regulate the passage of molecules such as fatty acids, pyruvic acid, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), ATP, oxygen, and water. Intermembrane Space The intermembrane space lies between the inner and outer membranes and contains a fluid similar to cytoplasm (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Its high proton concentration results from proton pumping by the respiratory-chain enzymatic complexes, contributing to the electrochemical gradient necessary for ATP synthesis. This space houses enzymes involved in high-energy phosphate transfer from ATP, notably adenylate kinase and creatine kinase. Additionally, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), carnitine is present—an essential molecule for transporting fatty acids from the cytosol into the mitochondrion for oxidation and energy production. Mitochondrial Matrix The mitochondrial matrix, also called the mitosol, contains fewer molecules than the cytosol (Montagud Rubio, 2020). However, it houses ions, metabolites in various stages of oxidation, circular DNA similar to bacterial DNA, and mitochondrial ribosomes (mitoribosomes), which synthesize certain mitochondrial proteins from mitochondrial RNA. This matrix shares features with organelles in free-living prokaryotes, which lack a nucleus. Furthermore, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), essential metabolic processes such as the Krebs cycle and fatty-acid β-oxidation—crucial for cellular energy production—occur within this compartment. Mitogenome or mtDNA Mitochondria possess their own DNA, known as the mitogenome or mtDNA, making them the only organelle with genetic material (Rothschuh, 2025). This circular DNA is smaller and works in coordination with nuclear DNA to regulate various cellular functions. Unlike nuclear DNA, the mitogenome is inherited exclusively maternally and does not undergo genetic recombination. Due to its proximity to oxidative metabolism and lack of protective histones, mtDNA is more vulnerable to mutations, which can lead to diseases such as Parkinson’s. Its study has been key to understanding cellular evolution, supporting the endosymbiotic theory. Rothschuh (2025) notes that, according to this hypothesis, a prokaryotic cell engulfed an aerobic bacterium, giving rise to the mitochondrion and establishing a symbiotic relationship essential for the evolution of eukaryotic cells. Fusion and Fission Mitochondria can continuously divide and fuse within cells, allowing mitochondrial DNA to form an interconnected network rather than exist as individual organelles (Montagud Rubio, 2020). This process facilitates the distribution of synthesized products, correction of local defects and exchange of genetic material. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), when two cells with distinct mitochondria fuse, the resulting mitochondrial network becomes homogeneous in approximately eight hours. Due to ongoing mitochondrial fusion and fission, determining the exact number of these organelles in a cell is complex (Montagud Rubio, 2020). However, tissues with high energy demands tend to have more mitochondria because of increased fission events. Mitochondrial division is regulated by dynamin - like proteins responsible for vesicle formation. Moreover, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), interaction with the endoplasmic reticulum plays a key role in this process, as its membranes wrap around the mitochondrion, creating a constriction that ultimately leads to its division. Functions The primary function of mitochondria is to produce ATP, the essential fuel for cellular processes; they also participate in fatty-acid metabolism via β-oxidation and serve as a calcium reservoir (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Furthermore, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), recent research has linked mitochondria to apoptosis, cancer, aging and various degenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease. ATP Synthesis In mitochondria, the majority of ATP in non-photosynthetic eukaryotic cells is generated. This process begins with acetyl-coenzyme A metabolism through the citric-acid cycle, producing CO₂ and NADH (Montagud Rubio, 2020; Megías et al., 2023). NADH then transfers electrons to a chain of carriers located in the cristae membranes, and these electrons move until they reach an oxygen molecule, forming water (Montagud Rubio, 2020; Megías et al., 2023). According to Montagud Rubio (2020), this electron flow is coupled to proton transport from the matrix to the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical gradient crucial for ATP synthesis. Through ATP synthase action, this proton gradient drives the attachment of a phosphate to ADP, using oxygen as the final electron acceptor in the process known as oxidative phosphorylation (Montagud Rubio, 2020). The electron-transport chain, or respiratory chain, comprises about 40 proteins, of which 15 directly participate in electron transfer, grouped into three protein complexes: NADH dehydrogenase, cytochrome b-c₁ and cytochrome oxidase (Megías et al., 2023). Each complex contains chemical groups that facilitate proton passage, generating a gradient with a significantly higher proton concentration in the intermembrane space than in the matrix. In addition to driving ATP synthesis, this gradient also promotes the transport of other charged molecules (Megías et al., 2023). For example, pyruvate, ADP and inorganic phosphate enter the matrix via proton-coupled symport, while ATP is expelled to the cytosol by an ADP/ATP antiport mechanism. Lipid Metabolism Mitochondrial activity significantly contributes to lipid synthesis in cells, as lysophosphatidic acid — a precursor of triacylglycerols — is generated in this organelle (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Additionally, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylglycerol —essential for cardiolipin and phosphatidylethanolamine formation—are produced, crucial for cellular-membrane structure and function. Protein Import Despite having relatively few genes compared to the diversity of proteins they contain, mitochondria exhibit remarkable proteomic complexity (Megías et al., 2023). For instance, a yeast mitochondrion hosts around 1,000 different proteins, while in humans the number can reach 1,500. Only a small fraction of these proteins is synthesized within the organelle; most are produced in the cytosol and then imported into mitochondria. Megías et al. (2023) explain that during import, proteins are directed to specific compartments by signal sequences that act like postal addresses, guiding them to their correct mitochondrial destination. Mitochondrial Renewal The mitochondrial population within a cell is constantly renewed by the removal and synthesis of new organelles (Megías et al., 2023). New mitochondria arise only from preexisting ones, while those that have completed their function are degraded by macroautophagy, which clears large amounts of cytoplasmic content. According to Megías et al. (2023), this balance between synthesis and degradation ensures the functionality and dynamics of the mitochondrial network. Mitochondria in Circulation In early 2020, functional free mitochondria were reported in the mammalian circulatory system (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). In cell cultures, both free mtDNA and intact, operational mitochondria were observed; likewise, studies on human and bovine serum found similar results, with bovine-serum mitochondria remaining detectable and functional even after treatment at 56 °C for 30 minutes. Moreover, Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023) documented that platelet-derived mitochondria have chemokine receptors, suggesting their involvement in immune processes via reprogramming of cell differentiation. It has also been proposed that extracellular mitochondria could help restore cellular homeostasis, accumulating in energy-deficient areas or responding to immunological stimuli in certain tissues (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). However, despite approximately 1.4 × 10⁶ mitochondria per milliliter of blood being identified via fluorescent markers like MitoTracker, the electron-transport chain did not exhibit full activity, indicating the need to further investigate the role of free mitochondria in blood. Finally, according to Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023), the presence of mitochondria in cerebrospinal fluid may serve as a biomarker for certain neurological diseases, so caution is advised when using fetal bovine serum in experiments, as these mitochondria could affect results. Intercellular Mitochondrial Transfer Certain cells — especially mesenchymal/stromal stem cells (MSCs) — can transfer mitochondria to damaged cells, as can other cell lines from bone marrow, adipose tissue, dental pulp and Wharton’s jelly (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). According to Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023), this mechanism—perhaps a remnant of the ancient endosymbiotic relationship — occurs in three stages: first, highly specific molecular signals from damaged cells or microenvironmental factors initiate the process; second, an intercellular structure forms to facilitate transfer; and finally, transferred mitochondria must perform or enhance bioenergetic functions in recipient cells. The signals inducing this process vary with tissue type and physiological conditions, involving factors such as ischemia (which exposes phosphatidylserine on the cell surface), matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1), the intermediate filament protein nestin, proinflammatory cytokines and inflammatory stress, as well as chemotherapy-induced conditions and a proinflammatory microenvironment (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). Additionally, Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023) describe how NOX2-derived superoxide in severely dysfunctional cells stimulates reactive-oxygen-species generation in the bone-marrow stroma, increasing mitochondrial donation to affected cells in acute myeloid leukemia. Furthermore, CD38 — a transmembrane‐signaling and adhesion ectoenzyme — modulates intracellular Ca²⁺ levels to generate cyclic ADP-ribose, which is also associated with this mechanism (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023) note that together these factors vary by the state of damaged cells and the surrounding microenvironment, determining the efficiency of intercellular mitochondrial transfer. Mitochondrial Tunneling Bridges Various mechanisms have been reported for intercellular mitochondrial transfer, including gap junctions, extracellular vesicles, free extracellular mitochondria, cytoplasmic fusion and tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). TNTs, which are nanotubes capable of bidirectional transport of proteins, lipid droplets, ions, RNA (including microRNA), organelles, viruses and cytosol. Two types of TNTs have been described: thick ones, which preferentially transfer mitochondria and form long, large-diameter channels (600–700 nm) containing microfilaments, microtubules and F-actin; and thin ones composed solely of F-actin. According to Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023), these TNTs act as scaffolds for proteins such as Miro1, Miro2, TRAK1, TRAK2, Myo19 and Kif5c, which drive mitochondrial movement between cells. Electron micrographs have been useful in illustrating TNT formation in cells (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). In certain biological systems—especially under stress, ischemic conditions or in tumors—mitochondrial transit from healthy to compromised cells has been observed. Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023) state that although information on intercellular mitochondrial transport has unlocked novel mitochondrial functions inside and outside cells, it remains unclear whether the donation of healthy mitochondria is entirely beneficial or may, in some cases, have adverse effects. Mitochondrial Medicine Mitochondrial transfer has been applied in animal experiments and in tissues affected by various diseases, a procedure known as “mitochondrial medicine” or “mitocuring” (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). In some countries, these strategies are approved even for addressing oocyte fertilization issues in reproductive biology. Studies indicate that mitochondria from healthy cells transferred to cells under unfavorable conditions—such as in cancer or oxidative stress—can modify the bioenergetic state of tumor tissue. However, according to Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023), some tumor cells that capture healthy mitochondria may enhance their growth and resistance to anticancer treatments, generating chemoresistance; therefore, transfer must be evaluated case by case depending on the pathology. Moreover, co-culture systems have shown that cells can incorporate isolated mitochondria as a recovery method, leading to new strategies for mitochondrial isolation in therapy (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). Experimentally, this technique has succeeded in animal models of diabetes or ischemic injury, improving cardiac protection. Subsequently, after its application in animal models, mitochondrial transfer has begun to be used in treating some human diseases. For example, according to Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023), in an autotransplantation performed on five pediatric patients with cardiac ischemia, four showed improved ventricular function and were weaned off extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). In another study, ten pediatric patients undergoing intracardiac mitochondrial transplantation experienced an 80% recovery rate compared to 29% in the control group (Olvera Sánchez et al., 2023). With these results, Olvera Sánchez et al. (2023) suggest that this therapy may soon be implemented to improve outcomes in hard-to-treat diseases, although more knowledge is needed about these techniques where mitochondria play a previously underappreciated role. Mitochondria: Cellular Energy and Health Given their central role in cellular metabolism and energy production, mitochondria are crucial for health and disease (Álvarez, 2023). Mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in metabolic, neurodegenerative, cardiovascular disorders and cancer. According to Álvarez (2023), in hereditary mitochondrial diseases, mutations in mtDNA or nuclear genes affecting mitochondrial function lead to multi-system disorders. Various factors increase the mitochondrial genome’s mutation rate: its constant replication raises the chance of errors, and as the respiratory organelle, its DNA is continually exposed to toxic oxygen derivatives known as reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage its structure (Torrentí Salom, 2018). Indeed, Torrentí Salom (2018) describes about 150 mitochondrial-genome mutations associated with diseases that impair energy production, since this genome encodes only 13 essential proteins, the rest having been transferred to the nucleus during endosymbiotic evolution. High-energy-demand tissues—such as muscles, brain, heart, liver and kidneys—are most vulnerable (Torrentí Salom, 2018). Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), causing bilateral central vision loss from optic-nerve atrophy; myoclonic epilepsy with ragged-red fibers (MERRF), characterized by epilepsy, seizures, myopathy and sometimes dementia, deafness, optic atrophy, respiratory failure or cardiomyopathy; and maternally inherited deafness-diabetes syndrome, as its name implies. Mitochondria and Aging Aging has been linked to progressive mitochondrial deterioration and accumulation of oxidative damage in these organelles (Álvarez, 2023). The mitochondrial senescence theory proposes that with advancing age, mitochondria become less efficient at energy production while generating more free radicals. According to Álvarez (2023), this imbalance between energy generation and oxidative stress may contribute to cellular aging and age-related diseases. Mitochondria: Key to Cellular Health Mitochondrial biology research continues to evolve, driven by studies exploring mitochondrial function and biogenesis (Álvarez, 2023). Active investigations focus on the metabolic pathways they participate in and the regulatory mechanisms governing their biogenesis and dynamics. Potential therapeutic strategies aimed at improving mitochondrial function in related diseases have been identified. In summary, mitochondria are essential for energy production, cellular metabolism and oxidative-stress regulation; their unique structure and functional diversity make them fundamental to cellular health. Furthermore, according to Álvarez (2023), ongoing study of these organelles and their roles in various pathologies offers new perspectives on cellular mechanisms and innovative therapeutic approaches. References Álvarez, J. (2023, enero 4). Mitocondrias: Definición y Funciones . Mentes Abiertas Psicología S.L. https://www.mentesabiertaspsicologia.com/blog-psicologia/mitocondrias-definicion-y-funciones Megías, M., Molist, P., & Pombal, M. Á. (2023). Mitocondrias . Atlas de Histología Vegetal y Animal. https://mmegias.webs.uvigo.es/5-celulas/6-mitocondrias.php Montagud Rubio, N. (2020, marzo 6). Mitocondrias: Qué Son, Características y Funciones . Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/salud/mitocondrias Olvera Sánchez, S., Gómez Chang, E., Flores Herrera, O., & Martínez, F. (2023). Las Mitocondrias: Sus Funciones, las Relaciones con Otros Organelos, la Supervivencia Celular y la Medicina Mitocondrial. TIP Revista Especralizada en Ciencias Químico - Biológicas , 26 . https://doi.org/10.22201/fesz.23958723e.2023.547 Rothschuh, U. (2025). Mitocondrias: Función y Estructura . ecologiaverde.com . https://www.ecologiaverde.com/mitocondrias-funcion-y-estructura-3693.html Torrentí Salom, F. (2018, mayo 23). Una Célula Dentro de tu Célula: La Mitocondria . Genotipia. https://genotipia.com/mitocondria/

Ironically, although the mind turns people into conscious and intelligent beings, it remains one of the greatest mysteries of science (Bertran, n.d.). Although more and more is known about its nature, research on mental health remains basic, since many of the diseases and disorders related to it continue to have a very high incidence in today's society. In correspondence with Bertran (n.d.), this is where psychology and psychiatry come in, two professions that deal with the knowledge and study of mental health that, despite their differences, are often confused. Etymological Differences If the etymology of the words that make up these two races is carefully analyzed, clues are found about what the work of each one is (Clemente, 2019). On the one hand, the prefix "psy" is derived from the Latin word "mind" and "iatry" originated in Greece and refers to the concept of cure or medicine (Rosado, n.d.). By combining the two affixes, psychiatry will lead to the medicine of the mind (Clemente, 2019). On the other hand, the prefix "psy" is derived from the Latin word "mind", and "logy" means "theory" or "science" (Rosado, n.d.). So, psychology can be defined as the science of the mind (Rosado, n.d.). Specifically, clinical psychology is the branch of psychology in charge of the evaluation, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mental illness (Clemente, 2019). Given the complexity of the human brain and the number of factors involved in mental health, it is necessary to treat each patient appropriately. To do this, according to Clemente (2019), it must be possible to determine which area is responsible for each area. Differences in Academic Training The most significant difference between psychologists and psychiatrists are the studies carried out (González, 2015; Rodríguez, 2019). On the one hand, the psychologist carried out a university study in the career of psychology , which lasts approximately 4 years (Prieto, n.d.). There, psychology students learn about psychological difficulties through an understanding of human behavior. Once the psychology degree is finished, these professionals will have multiple opportunities, such as clinical psychology, neuropsychology , human resources, criminology, among others (Clemente, 2019) . On the contrary, the psychiatrist completed a university degree in medicine, which lasts approximately 6 years, and specialized in mental illnesses (González, 2015; Céspedes, 2017; Triglia, n.d .; Prieto, n.d.). According to González (2015), his research is generally focused on medicine and emphasizes its importance in the organic aspects of mental disorders. Differences in Treatment On the one hand, psychologists conduct evaluations and treatments for psychotherapy, give importance to the dimensions of thought, emotion, and behavior, help people understand and resolve current psychological difficulties, and help them build relationships so that they can obtain necessary mental health (González, 2015; Céspedes, 2017). Some of the reasons why people visit a psychologist are behavior problems, learning problems, depression or anxiety (Rodríguez, 2019). When visiting a psychologist for the first time, a lot is worked with the therapeutic alliance so that the person feels in a safe environment, gains confidence in this person and can really open up and expose their complaints, pains and living conditions (Rodríguez, 2019). Similarly, in correspondence with Rodríguez (2019), in the first visit all ethical and legal aspects of the profession should be discussed so that patients understand that the main thing is to safeguard their well-being and find ways to help them improve their motivation to appointments, but that confidentiality always has limitations, especially when the patient thinks of harming himself or others. Regarding the psychiatrist, it focuses on the use of pharmacology through the prescription of drugs to improve the symptoms of a certain disability in people's lives due to mental illness (González, 2015; Céspedes, 2017; Prieto, n.d.). In the same way, there are psychiatrists who, in addition to medications, include psychological interventions (González, 2015). It should be noted that, although the psychologist has received training in psychopharmacology, they cannot prescribe medications, since this is the exclusive field of the psychiatrist (González, 2015. However, the experience with the psychiatrist will depend on the level of care the patient receives (Rodríguez, 2019). For example, if it is an outpatient service, in the first visit the reason for the consultation is identified, the initial symptoms are determined and the initial diagnosis is made, however, the most important thing is to request laboratory tests or images to rule out that the the patient's problem is not caused by something physical. Differences in Hospitalizations Another significant difference between psychologists and psychiatrists is that in the presence of a mental health crisis, a psychiatrist can make admissions to hospitalizations (Rodríguez, 2019). Instead, psychologists can refer patients to the psychiatrist and work with an interdisciplinary team to treat the inpatient. In correspondence with Rodríguez (2019), this is because the only person who can admit another person to a hospital is the doctor, which, in this case, the doctor is the psychiatrist. Differences in the Duration of the Sessions Another difference between psychology and psychiatry is the time of consultations (Bertran, n.d.). Since psychology deals with psychological problems from a social perspective, it must have a detailed understanding of all aspects of human life, including the present and the past (Bertran, n.d.). This allows the meeting to last approximately one hour, since psychologists must have enough time to explore the conflict in the person's mind and provide the necessary guidance (Prieto, n.d.). On the contrary, going to a psychiatrist is like going to any other doctor's office (Prieto, n.d.). Instead of carrying out a detailed psychological evaluation, they limit themselves to analyzing the patient's symptoms and prescribing one or another medication based on the symptoms (Bertran, n.d.). According to Prieto (n.d..), the course of treatment is shorter because it does not delve into the cause, since, from a medical point of view, this is enough to solve the problem. References Bertran, P. Las 5 diferencias entre Psicología y Psiquiatría . Medicoplus.com . Recuperado 6 September 2021, a partir de https://medicoplus.com/psiquiatria/diferencias-psicologia-psiquiatria Céspedes, F. (2017). Diferencias entre psicología y psiquiatría . psicologia-online.com . Recuperado 6 December 2020, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/diferencias-entre-psicologia-y-psiquiatria-39.html Clemente, S. (2019). Psiquiatra y psicólogo clínico: las 7 diferencias . La Mente es Maravillosa . Recuperado 2 December 2020, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/psiquiatra-y-psicologo-las-7-diferencias/ González, B. (2015). ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre un psicólogo y un psiquiatra? . Somos Psicología y Formación . Recuperado 2 December 2020, a partir de https://www.somospsicologos.es/blog/cual-es-la-diferencia-entre-un-psicologo-y-un-psiquiatra/ Prieto, B. (s.f.). Las 5 diferencias entre Psicología y Psiquiatría . Medicoplus.com . Recuperado 6 December 2020, a partir de https://medicoplus.com/psiquiatria/diferencias-psicologia-psiquiatria Rodríguez, D. (2019). Las diferencias entre el psicólogo y el psiquiatra . es mental . Recuperado 6 December 2020, a partir de https://www.esmental.com/las-diferencias-entre-el-psicologo-y-el-psiquiatra/ Rosado, C. Diferencia entre psicólogos y psiquiatras . Centro de Psicología Usera . Recuperado 6 September 2021, a partir de https://psicologiausera.com/psicologia/terapia-psicologica/diferencia-entre-psicologos-y-psiquiatras/ Triglia, A. (s.f). ​¿Cuál es la diferencia entre un psicólogo y un psiquiatra? . Psicologiaymente.com . Recuperado 6 December 2020, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/diferencias-psicologo-psiquiatra

The concept of “normal” is frequently and indiscriminately used in contemporary society (Sanfeliciano, 2018). People often hear that certain things or behaviors are or are not normal. However, when one attempts to define the idea of normality, things become more complicated, as it is difficult to determine what is normal and what is abnormal. Sanfeliciano (2018) points out that, regarding this issue, it is essential to ask: if there is a line separating normality from abnormality, how can one know when that line has been crossed? Normality and Abnormality in Culture At first glance, one can assert that normality is a construct that emerges and is shaped through cultural and social dynamics—through the acceptance of values and beliefs shared by a given group. In other words, it evolves as transformations or processes occur within a society and among its members. Therefore, there is no single or universal notion of normality that applies to all communities, societies, or social groups (Huenchucona, 2021). In this sense, consistent with Sanfeliciano (2018), one cannot speak of normality in general terms, but rather of what is considered normal within a specific society. For this reason, it is difficult to consider the concepts of normality and abnormality without referring to culture (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). In any given culture, there are widely accepted beliefs and behaviors that are part of its traditions. For example, in many Christian countries, people believe that the number 13 is unlucky and often take special precautions on that day. As a result, and in line with Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley (2007), some hotels, buildings, and hospitals do not have a 13th floor. In contrast, Japanese culture does not associate misfortune with the number 13, but instead avoids the number 4, since the Japanese word for "four" is similar to the word for "death." Similarly, the words used to describe psychological distress vary significantly across cultures (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). For instance, there is no direct equivalent of the word “depressed” in the languages of certain Native American or Southeast Asian groups. Of course, this does not mean that members of these cultures do not experience psychological depression. However, the way certain mental disorders manifest can largely depend on the culturally specific ways in which emotional pain is expressed. In China, for example, individuals with depression often report physical symptoms—such as fatigue, dizziness, or headaches—rather than consistently expressing sadness, which is typically associated with depression in the West (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). Although cultural factors influence how mental illness manifests clinically, some forms of psychopathology appear to be highly specific to particular cultures (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007). One such example is koro , an anxiety disorder frequently seen in young Asian men. According to Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley (2007), it is characterized by an intense fear that protruding body parts—often the penis—are shrinking or retracting into the body, which is believed to lead to death. What is "Normal" and what is Abnormal? Normality refers to what is considered natural, what flows and occurs spontaneously, and is therefore simply accepted. It is what is common, what does not disturb or discomfort either the individual or others. As such, no one seems to be troubled or concerned by what is known as normality (Orozco, 2014). Based on this definition, and given that under certain circumstances one can influence or aggravate the other, abnormality would be the opposite condition—one that deviates from what is considered normal. In other words, it is behavior that "deviates" from cultural norms, yet, like normality, it adjusts to sociocultural parameters through acceptance, beliefs, and their reproduction (Huenchucona, 2021). According to Orozco (2014), such “abnormalities” emerge in two directions: the first in a positive sense, such as exceptional talent in intellectual or artistic domains or extraordinary intuitive abilities; and the second, in a negative sense, referring to behaviors that deviate from the norm in a harmful or concerning way. History of Normality and Abnormality To understand the historical development of these concepts, it is helpful to consider four key moments that illustrate different interpretations of abnormal behavior (Rivera, 2020). The first took place in prehistoric times, when disturbed behavior was interpreted through supernatural explanations and seen as punishment by demons or witches. Later, it came to be understood as a sign of stress or depression. At another point, abnormalities were believed to be caused by the moon or stars. The second stage occurred in antiquity, when abnormal behavior was thought to stem from biological causes. Hippocrates and Galen , for instance, believed that such behaviors resulted from an imbalance of bodily fluids, giving rise to the theory of the four basic temperaments . In the 19th century, according to Rivera (2020), such behaviors were often attributed to dementia caused by brain infections. In the modern era, the development of treatments for behaviors that violated social and moral norms led to the creation of various care institutions (Rivera, 2020). Thanks to contributions from different psychological schools of thought, appropriate treatment methods and classifications for "abnormal" behavior were established. Today, scientific and integrative methods exist to assess unusual behaviors, and tools based on specific criteria have emerged to help identify them (Rivera, 2020). Contemporary psychology defines psychological disorder as a condition characterized by the presence of abnormal thoughts, emotions, and behaviors (Maristany, 2019). However, as Maristany (2019) notes, this leads back to the same question: What is abnormal? To answer this, the science of the human mind has developed manuals such as the DSM-5 and the ICD-11 (Maristany, 2019). These texts include standardized diagnostic criteria intended to distinguish between normal and abnormal behaviors and symptoms—particularly pathological ones. Although defining these two concepts remains a complex task, having such parameters is crucial for identifying and supporting individuals who may be experiencing mental illness. However, the DSM-5 does not define what is normal or abnormal. Its purpose is to specify types of mental disorders in order to identify “abnormal” symptoms or behaviors that may indicate a specific disorder. According to Maristany (2019), it is important to acknowledge that the definitions of these terms have changed over time and must continue to evolve, since society and its concepts are constantly transforming—and the standards must reflect this. References Butcher, J., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. (2007). Psicología clínica ( 12a. ed.). Distrito Federal: Pearson Educación. Huenchucona, Y. (2021). Contacto a los conceptos: normalidad- anormalidad . Al Poniente . Recuperado 4 September 2021, a partir de https://alponiente.com/contacto-a-los-conceptos-normalidad-anormalidad/ Maristany, A. (2019). ¿Qué es lo “normal” y “anormal” para la Psicología? . Psicólogos Córdoba . Recuperado 26 November 2020, a partir de https://psicologoscordoba.org/normal-anormal-psicologia/ Orozco, S. (2014). Vista de Normalidad y anormalidad psicológica y niveles de prevención . Revistas.udea.edu.co . Recuperado 4 September 2021, a partir de https://revistas.udea.edu.co/index.php/Psyconex/article/view/22445/18579 Rivera, A. (2020). Conceptos de anormalidad y normalidad en el ejercicio de la psicología clínica . Recuperado 26 November 2020, a partir de https://cdn.goconqr.com/uploads/media/pdf_media/21074063/7f6fe581-7a83-405d-9950-7746a7bef6e3.pdf Sanfeliciano, A. (2018). ¿Qué significa la normalidad? . La Mente es Maravillosa . Recuperado 4 September 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/que-significa-la-normalidad/

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