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* El precio está indicado en pesos colombianos * El proceso neuropsicológico consta de 3 pasos. El segundo paso se centra en la aplicación de todas las pruebas necesarias. Este proceso se lleva a cabo en 3 a 4 sesiones, adaptadas específicamente a tus necesidades individuales. Aunque realizamos una evaluación exhaustiva de todas las funciones cognitivas, nos enfocamos en las áreas que realmente requieren atención, asegurando que cada sesión se ajuste a tus circunstancias particulares. Esto significa que, si necesitas un enfoque en memoria, atención o cualquier otra función, nosotros lo priorizaremos, brindándote un análisis detallado y completo que te ayudará a entender mejor tus capacidades y desafíos. ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Reserva tu espacio. Reserva tu sesión de 2 horas a través de nuestra página web o por WhatsApp, eligiendo el horario que mejor te convenga. Paso 2: Preparación para la evaluación. Antes de la sesión, asegúrate de estar descansado y relajado. Puedes revisar cualquier documento que te hayamos enviado y preparar preguntas o inquietudes que desees abordar durante la evaluación. Paso 3: Evaluación cognitiva. Durante la sesión, realizaremos diversas pruebas estandarizadas para evaluar áreas como memoria, atención y funciones ejecutivas, brindándote una visión completa de tu funcionamiento cerebral. Paso 4: Análisis y retroalimentación. Una vez completadas las evaluaciones, analizaremos los resultados de manera exhaustiva. Te proporcionaremos una retroalimentación clara y comprensible sobre tus fortalezas, debilidades y áreas de mejora potencial, para que tengas una comprensión profunda de tu estado cognitivo. Paso 5: Plan de intervención. Desarrollaremos un plan de intervención individualizado basado en los resultados y tus objetivos personales, que incluirá recomendaciones de tratamiento y recursos de apoyo adaptados a tus necesidades. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Enfoque personalizado: Ofrecemos un abordaje individualizado que se adapta a tus necesidades específicas, garantizando que cada evaluación y plan de intervención sea relevante para ti. Evaluación integral: Realizamos una evaluación completa de todas las funciones cognitivas, utilizando pruebas estandarizadas para obtener una visión precisa de tu funcionamiento cerebral. Profesionales capacitados: Nuestro equipo está formado por expertos en neuropsicología, comprometidos con tu bienestar y con la experiencia necesaria para ofrecerte el mejor apoyo.

* El precio está indicado en pesos colombianos * El proceso de evaluación neuropsicológica se divide en tres pasos fundamentales, cada uno diseñado para brindarte una experiencia personalizada y completa. En nuestra primera sesión, dedicada a la historia clínica, nos sumergiremos en un espacio donde tu voz es lo más importante. Esta sesión de 1 hora está diseñada para conocerte mejor y entender tus necesidades. Te haré preguntas que te ayudarán a expresar tu motivo de consulta, así como aspectos relevantes de tu historia escolar y tu composición familiar. Cada detalle que compartas es esencial, ya que juntos construiremos un mapa único de tu trayectoria. Con base en la información que me proporciones, organizaré cuidadosamente las pruebas que aplicaremos en nuestras futuras sesiones. Este proceso no solo es una formalidad; es el primer paso para diseñar un plan de intervención que se ajuste perfectamente a ti. Recuerda, este es un espacio seguro y confidencial, donde cada respuesta cuenta. Tu bienestar es nuestra prioridad, y estoy aquí para acompañarte en este camino hacia una mejor calidad de vida. ¡Espero verte pronto y comenzar este proceso juntos! ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Escoge tu horario. Lo primero que debes hacer es seleccionar el horario que mejor se ajuste a tu agenda. Puedes hacerlo de manera sencilla a través de la página web o enviando un mensaje por WhatsApp a los datos de contacto que encontrarás en la parte inferior. Paso 2: Confirma tu cita. Una vez que hayas elegido el horario, asegúrate de confirmar tu cita. Esto nos permitirá organizar todo para que tu sesión sea lo más efectiva posible. Paso 3: Disfruta la sesión. En el día y la hora acordados, estarás listo para tu sesión de consulta con un profesional de la neuropsicología. Te escucharemos con atención y respeto, te haremos preguntas para profundizar en tu situación y te proporcionaremos retroalimentación. También te orientaremos sobre los pasos a seguir, incluyendo si es necesaria una evaluación neuropsicológica y cómo puedes acceder a ella. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Experiencia: Contamos con un equipo de profesionales altamente capacitados en diversas áreas de la neuropsicología. Puedes confiar en que recibirás información precisa y actualizada, respaldada por años de experiencia. Confidencialidad: Valoramos tu privacidad. Todas nuestras interacciones son confidenciales, lo que te permite sentirte seguro y cómodo al compartir tu historia y preocupaciones.

El servicio de terapia de pareja está diseñado para ayudarte a superar desafíos y conflictos en la relación, mejorar la comunicación y construir un vínculo más fuerte y saludable. Aquí, se ofrece un espacio seguro y confidencial para explorar preocupaciones y trabajar en soluciones constructivas juntos. ¿Cómo funciona? Paso 1: Separa el espacio de la cita. En nuestra página web, encontrarás un proceso sencillo para programar una cita. Esto garantiza que cada pareja tenga su propio tiempo y espacio dedicado para la terapia. Paso 2: Evaluación inicial. En la primera sesión, realizaremos una evaluación exhaustiva de la relación, incluyendo los desafíos actuales, las expectativas y las áreas de mejora. Esto nos ayuda a comprender mejor las necesidades únicas de cada pareja. Paso 3: Establecer objetivos. Trabajaremos en colaboración con la pareja para establecer objetivos claros y alcanzables para la terapia. Estos objetivos servirán como guía durante el proceso de tratamiento. Paso 4: Exploración y reflexión. A lo largo de las sesiones, exploraremos las dinámicas de la relación, identificando patrones de comportamiento y comunicación que puedan estar contribuyendo a los problemas. Fomentaremos la reflexión y la autoconciencia para promover el crecimiento personal y de pareja. Paso 5: Desarrollo de habilidades. Proporcionaremos herramientas y técnicas prácticas para mejorar la comunicación, resolver conflictos de manera constructiva y fortalecer la conexión emocional. ¿Por qué elegirnos? Experiencia y profesionalismo: Nuestro equipo está compuesto por psicólogos con experiencia y formación especializada en terapia de pareja. Nos comprometemos a brindar un servicio profesional y ético que se adapte a sus necesidades individuales y de relación. Enfoque personalizado: Reconocemos que cada pareja es única, por lo que adaptamos nuestras intervenciones terapéuticas para satisfacer sus necesidades específicas. Nuestro enfoque centrado en la pareja garantiza que reciban la atención y el apoyo que merecen en su viaje hacia la sanación y el crecimiento. Confidencialidad y respeto: Valoramos la confidencialidad y el respeto en todas nuestras interacciones. Pueden confiar en que su privacidad será protegida en todo momento, y nos esforzamos por crear un ambiente seguro y sin juicios donde puedan explorar libremente sus preocupaciones y emociones.

The treatment of mental illnesses has undergone remarkable progress, although ancient methods were, in many cases, crude and cruel (Pearce, 2020). For centuries, erroneous beliefs linked mental disorders to supernatural causes, such as madness inflicted by Greek gods, medieval demonic possession, or even concepts like witchcraft and the "furies of the womb." In this context, popular beliefs dominated medical thought until the 17th century, when, during the Enlightenment, new theories about the causes of mental disorders began to emerge. According to Pearce (2020), physicians started to suspect that many of these disorders could be related to organic problems in the brain, including GPI and hysteria. In this regard, key figures such as Thomas Willis (1621 - 1675) and Thomas Sydenham (1624 - 1689) introduced the idea of a "nervous distemper" or "spiritus animalis" (pneuma psychikon in Greek), a condition affecting certain vulnerable patients (Pearce, 2020). However, most psychiatrists of the time firmly believed that organic lesions could not be the cause of mental disorders, and the predominant approach remained focused on concepts such as possession and supernatural madness. The treatments of that era, though violent and ineffective, were designed to contain outbursts of disordered behavior, common in both organic and psychotic disorders. According to Pearce (2020), the figure of the madman was considered a separate creature, closer to bestiality than to humanity. Asylums, which initially began as monasteries providing shelter for the mentally ill, transformed into private institutions in the 18th century, primarily accessible to the wealthy (Pearce, 2020). However, the treatment methods were brutal: physical punishments, bloodletting, and purging were common practices, and patients were often confined to cells, subjected to straitjackets, or even chained to walls. The conditions for the mentally ill in these asylums were deplorable. Alongside vagrants and social offenders, they were deprived of humane care. According to Pearce (2020), this scenario reflects the dehumanizing treatment that mentally ill individuals received at the time, a situation that, fortunately, has changed over time. Biography Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) was born in Jonquières (Tarn), France, on April 20, 1745, into a family with a medical background, as his father was also a physician, specifically a surgeon (Guerri, n.d.; Medina, 2011). From an early age, he excelled in his academic training, starting with studies in Latin and religion at a religious boarding school in Lavaur (Guerri, n.d.). Although he initially pursued theology teaching, he soon realized that his true calling was not in religion, which led him to move to Toulouse to study medicine and mathematics, obtaining his doctorate in 1773 (Guerri, n.d.). In his early professional years, he struggled to make a living (Medina, 2011). To sustain himself, according to Sánchez (2019), he began writing theses for wealthy students, although these works lacked innovative ideas. In 1778, he moved to Paris, where he survived by giving private mathematics lessons and translating medical articles (Medina, 2011; Sánchez, 2019). In 1784, he took over the direction of the "Gazette de Santé2, where he also translated medical writings, such as those of Cullen, which allowed him to develop his own work, "Nosographie Philosophique", notably similar to the texts he translated (Guerri, n.d.). In 1789, he became involved in the French Revolution, an event that would profoundly influence his life and career. In the following years, he began treating mentally ill patients at Monsieur Belhomme's asylum and at the Bicêtre hospice until 1795. This experience provided him with a unique perspective on the treatment of mental disorders. According to Guerri (n.d.), his approach was based on treating patients with greater humanity and respect, eliminating many of the cruel and outdated practices that had been used in asylums and hospices until then. During this period, the practices of Jean-Baptiste Pussin had a significant influence on Pinel (Guerri, n.d.). Pussin, known for his charitable and humane treatment of patients, became a role model for Pinel, who adopted both his observational approach and his benevolent methods in patient care. Following his example, Pinel decided to free patients from their chains and began studying the symptoms of mental illnesses and disorders in greater detail. This led to the systematic preservation of medical records and relevant documents. According to Guerri (n.d.), this rigor in his work earned him the title of founder of psychiatry in France. He also eliminated bloodletting and other ineffective or cruel practices from therapies, focusing on improving patients' mental health through a more positive approach, which included the use of reinforcement messages and appropriate reasoning in cases of delirium (Guerri, n.d.). However, he did not entirely discard other methods that are now considered inhumane, such as starvation therapy or suffocation in water troughs with patients tied up. Guerri (n.d.) mentions that, in addition to his achievements in treating mental illnesses, he also worked as an adjunct professor of medical physics and hygiene at the new Paris Health School from 1794 onward. From 1795 until the end of his career and life, he served as a physician at the Salpêtrière (Guerri, n.d.). During this time, he contributed to the development of pathological anatomy and the creation of a classification system for mental illnesses, which was documented in his work "Traité Médico-Philosophique sur l’aliénation Mentale" in 1801 (Guerri, n.d.). In this treatise, he classified mental illnesses into four categories: simple melancholy, mania, dementia, and idiocy (Medina, 2011). Additionally, according to Guerri (n.d.), he argued that the causes of mental disorders could be physical, hereditary, or mostly moral, distinguishing intense passions and excesses as primary triggers. In its first edition, the title included the subtitle "La Manie", but this focus changed in the second edition when Pinel shifted his emphasis to mental illnesses, paying particular attention to behavior and the varying degrees of mental disorders and disturbances (Guerri, n.d.). This demonstrates his opposition to the prevailing methods of treating the mentally ill at the time. For this reason, he is considered a true precursor of reform and change in mental health regulations. According to Guerri (n.d.), his work and proposals were finally recognized in the legal field with the enactment of the law of June 30, 1838. Pinel’s fame and prestige were so great that, in 1805, he was awarded the Legion of Honor by Napoleon and appointed as the Emperor’s Medical Consultant (Guerri, n.d.). He served the Empire until the beginning of the Restoration when he was honored with the Order of Saint Michael in 1818. These were years of great recognition for Pinel. However, in 1822, he was dismissed from his position as a professor at the Ministry of Health, and later, he faced a difficult battle against arteriopathic dementia, an illness that accompanied him until his death in 1825 in Paris. Despite the personal challenges he faced, Pinel’s influence remains undeniable. According to Guerri (n.d.), his innovative approach, particularly his more humane vision of treating mental illnesses, left a profound mark not only in his country but worldwide, impacting generations of mental health professionals. Biography Guerri, M. (s. f.). Biografía de Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) . Psicoactiva.com . Recuperado 9 de enero de 2025, de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biografias/philippe-pinel/ Medina, N. M. (2011, mayo 20). Philippe Pinel y las Bases del Diagnóstico Psiquiátrico Moderno . Corporación de Radio y Televisión Española. https://www.rtve.es/noticias/20110520/philippe-pinel-y-las-bases-del-diagnostico-psiquiatrico-moderno/433802.shtml Pearce, J. M. S. (2020, junio 4). The Beginnings of Humane Psychiatry: Pinel and the Tukes. Hektoen International . https://hekint.org/2020/06/04/the-beginnings-of-humane-psychiatry-pinel-and-the-tukes/Sánchez , E. (2019, mayo 6). Philippe Pinel y los Albores de la Psiquiatría . La Mente es Maravillosa. https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/philippe-pinel-y-los-albores-de-la-psiquiatria /

Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 – 1803) was a crucial thinker in the development of German Romanticism, although he did not experience this movement in its fullness (Montagud Rubio, 2021). His philosophy marked the first steps toward Sturm und Drang, a movement that would later become the foundation of Romanticism. Unlike the universal ideals of the Enlightenment, Herder defended diversity among peoples and argued that each nation possessed a unique spirit, known as Volkgeist. According to Montagud Rubio (2021), this idea highlighted the distinctive character of each culture and underscored the importance of its historical roots and traditions. One of the central characteristics of his thought was his positive appraisal of the Middle Ages, which he saw as the foundational stage of European nations (Montagud Rubio, 2021). This approach led him to exalt both individualism and national sentiment—ideas that would resonate deeply in later Romanticism. Moreover, in line with Montagud Rubio (2021), Herder came into contact with influential figures of his time, such as Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) and Denis Diderot, and exerted a notable influence on Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, one of the leading representatives of the Romantic movement. Biography Johann Gottfried von Herder was born on August 25, 1744, in Mohrungen, a locality in East Prussia that today belongs to Poland (Montagud Rubio, 2021). His parents, Gottfried Herder and Anna Elizabeth Peltz, provided their six children with a religious education in an environment of limited resources. During his childhood, Johann developed his initial knowledge with the help of his father's Bible and the lessons his parents could offer. Over time, in accordance with Montagud Rubio (2021), he managed to attend the local school thanks to various supports that allowed him to continue his academic training. At the age of 16, he obtained accommodation in the home of the vicar Sebastian Trescho, where he worked as a copyist (Montagud Rubio, 2021). This opportunity opened the doors to an extensive library, which he used to teach himself about theology and culture. Although he initially planned to study medicine with the financial support of the surgeon J.C. Schwarz-Erla, he soon discovered that his true vocation lay in theology. In 1762, at the age of 17, he entered the University of Königsberg, where he became a student of Immanuel Kant, a central figure of critical philosophy. Montagud Rubio (2021) notes that, although he would later disagree with some aspects of Kantian thought, Herder was also influenced by Johann Georg Hamann, with whom he shared his rejection of Enlightenment rationalism. In 1764, he moved to Riga, where he was ordained as a Protestant pastor and worked as a teacher and preacher (Montagud Rubio, 2021). During this period, he published his first works, among them “Fragmente Über die Neuere Deutsche Literatur” (“Fragments Concerning German Literature”). At the age of 20, he embarked on a journey through Europe, an experience that transformed his vision of life. In line with Montagud Rubio (2021), his work “Journal Meiner Reise im Jahr 1769” (“Diary of My Journey in 1769”) reflected this change by describing his break with academic security to venture into the unknown. In Strasbourg, he met Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who recognized Herder’s influence in his observations about literary figures such as Homer and Shakespeare (Montagud Rubio, 2021). In France, he also came into contact with the encyclopedists and studied the works of Jean - Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778) . During this stage, according to Montagud Rubio (2021), Herder wrote “Kritische Wälder” (“Critical Forests”), a precursor text to the Sturm und Drang movement that anticipated Romanticism by emphasizing individualism and sentiment. In 1770, he moved to Hamburg, where he met Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, and later to Darmstadt, where he married Maria Karoline Flachsland, with whom he had seven children (Montagud Rubio, 2021). Between 1771 and 1776, he resided in Bückeburg, where he published “Abhandlung Über den Ursprung der Sprache” (“Treatise on the Origin of Language”), a work that earned him a prize from the Berlin Academy. In 1776, thanks to Goethe’s influence, he settled in Weimar as general superintendent and councilor of the consistory. There, in accordance with Montagud Rubio (2021), Herder developed a general morphology aimed at understanding the historical context behind each literary work. Herder’s method is distinguished by his ability to recognize contradictions while simultaneously seeking a higher unity, which secured him a place in the history of dialectical logic (Montagud Rubio, 2021). It was during this period that he consolidated his transition to classicism (Irmscher, 2024). In that same context, he published an essay on the philosophy of the mind entitled "On the Cognition and the Feeling of the Human Soul" in 1778 (Montagud Rubio, 2021). His interest in history, especially the Middle Ages, led him to write, between 1778 and 1779, "Volkslieder Nebst Untermischten Anderen Stücken" (“The Voices of the Peoples in Songs”), a work in which he compiled poems from the Bible, Homer, Ossian, and other historical authors, in addition to including his own verses alongside those of Goethe and Matthias Claudius. These poems, according to Montagud Rubio (2021), which did not always align with the prevailing artistic current, reflected classical influences on Herder rather than Enlightenment ones. Weimar became his permanent home until his death, except for a brief stay in Italy during the years he wrote "The Voices of the Peoples in Songs" (Montagud Rubio, 2021). This city had emerged as the epicenter of German classicism, and thanks to his role as court preacher and member of the consistory, he enjoyed a calm and stable life, aside from some philosophical disagreements and the publication of new works. Although his final years were spent comfortably in Weimar, he faced tense situations in the philosophical realm. Montagud Rubio (2021) notes that his support for revolutionary French ideas led him to fall out with several of his friends and to distance himself from Goethe. Furthermore, his criticism of Kant’s philosophy—his own mentor—affected his popularity toward the end of his life, leading to his isolation from the previously supportive social circle (Montagud Rubio, 2021). However, despite these conflicts, his thought, work, and philosophy had a profound impact on his time, to the extent that in 1802 the Prince of Bavaria granted him the noble title "von," officially making him Johann Gottfried von Herder, a recognition that set him apart remarkably. According to Montagud Rubio (2021), he passed away a year later, on December 18, 1803, at the age of 59. The Work of Johann Gottfried Herder: A Unique Philosophical and Linguistic Approach His work clearly reflects his personality and intellectual approach (Montagud Rubio, 2021). Rather than focusing on a single subject, he is noted for his ability to write passionately about a wide range of disciplines, such as theology, philosophy, literature, philology, history, and German culture, merging all these areas in his texts. This approach has been criticized by some detractors, who argue that his writings lack organization—both grammatically and emotionally—and view them more as casual discourses than as academic works (Montagud Rubio, 2021). However, according to Foster (2023), this apparent disorganization is deliberate and serves a philosophical purpose. Herder had deep philosophical reasons for employing this writing style (Forster, 2023). Firstly, he believed that this approach would make his work more accessible and appealing to the public, which was fundamental for him since he considered one of the essential tasks of philosophy to be achieving a significant social impact. Secondly, Herder defended the expressive superiority of speech over writing. His central thesis in the philosophy of the mind holds that thought should not be separated from will or emotion; for him, forms of thought that attempt to exclude affect are inherently distorting and inferior. In this sense, he believed that traditional academic writing, being cold and rigid, lacked this emotional connection. On the contrary, according to Forster (2023), the spontaneous expression of speech—or even writing that imitates it—is more authentic and genuine. Finally, Herder opposed the lexical and grammatical rigidity of language, rejecting any form of dogmatic adherence to dictionaries or strict grammatical rules (Forster, 2023). In his view, such restrictions not only limited linguistic creativity but also the capacity of thought to develop freely and fluidly. For him, as Forster (2023) explains, language is not only a tool for communication but is also intimately linked to the process of thought, so any external limitation on language also restricts the freedom and inventiveness of thought itself. The Importance of Herder in German Cultural History Although his writing style is not characterized as the most intellectual, this does not diminish the value of his works, which remain highly relevant (Montagud Rubio, 2021). His studies focused on recovering and valuing the history and culture of Germany, analyzing the progression of these elements over time and how historical events influenced the character and condition of nations. He is recognized as one of the main precursors of the concept of "Volkgeist"—the spirit of the people—an idea that encompasses the distinctive traits of each nation. According to Montagud Rubio (2021), this concept was already present in works preceding official German Romanticism, precisely during the period in which Herder developed his work. Herder’s Vision on Social and Cultural Evolution In attempting to foresee the social evolution of his country, Herder adopted a unique approach by looking to the past rather than the present (Montagud Rubio, 2021). His interest focused on understanding and disseminating the origin of the popular songs of the Middle Ages, a period that many considered dark, but which he perceived as an era full of light and meaning. According to Montagud Rubio (2021), this was a time when European cultures began to form, transmitting their traditions and songs orally. On the other hand, the Enlightenment—a movement that opposed the medieval view—maintained that all human beings were equal, an idea that Herder firmly rejected (Montagud Rubio, 2021). For him, each nation was unique, with its own spirit—the "Volkgeist." Only those who had been exposed to the cultural, geographical, and historical elements of their country could truly understand that nation. Furthermore, Herder disagreed with the idea that the Enlightenment represented the pinnacle of cultural development for humanity. This movement proclaimed that humanity had reached its culmination, something that Herder considered false. Montagud Rubio (2021) mentions that, according to him, figures far more brilliant existed in past eras, and the Middle Ages, far from being an era of darkness, represented a period of great philosophical splendor in several respects. Herder and His Philosophical Approach to the Mind and Sensation In his work "On the Cognition and Sensation" (1778) and other texts, Herder presents an influential stance within the philosophy of the mind, critically addressing the mind–body problem (Forster, 2023). Throughout his career, he explored various solutions to this issue, but the one he ultimately adopted is decidedly naturalistic and anti-dualistic. In this regard, as Forster (2023) explains, his proposal rejects the traditional division between the mental and the physical, suggesting that minds and their mental conditions consist of forces (Kräfte) that are reflected in bodily behavior, just as physical forces manifest in bodies. Although he maintained an agnostic position on the nature of these forces, his theory has significant virtues (Forster, 2023). On one hand, it conceptually links mental states with specific bodily behaviors, as seen in the desire to eat an apple—which is not only conditioned but conceptually related to the act of eating it. This approach has advantages over both dualistic theories and mind–brain identity theories. On the other hand, it avoids reducing mental states to bodily behavior, which is equally important given that there are mental states not reflected in visible behavior, such as symbolic thoughts. According to Forster (2023), his agnosticism regarding the nature of mental force is interpreted not as a weakness, but as a recognition that, although concepts of the mind imply a real source of behavior, they do not make assumptions about the constitution of that source. A key aspect of Herder’s proposal is his explanation of the mind through the phenomenon of irritation (Reiz), recently identified by the physiologist Albrecht von Haller (Forster, 2023). This phenomenon, exemplified by muscle fibers contracting in response to physical stimuli, has implications beyond the physiological, as it can also exhibit mental characteristics. Although Herder initially resisted physicalist reductionism, in certain drafts and versions of "On the Cognition and Sensation" he adopts a stance that might appear physiological. Forster (2023) notes that, from a modern perspective, this is valuable, even though current advances suggest we should reinterpret it in terms of more complex physiological processes. In addition to his reflections on forces and irritation, Herder presents the mind as an indivisible unity, rejecting the idea of a sharp division between its faculties (Forster, 2023). This stance contrasts with the theories of thinkers such as Sulzer and Kant. However, the originality of Herder lies in rejecting the reduction of sensation and will to cognition and in asserting that the unity of the mind must be understood empirically rather than a priori. According to Forster (2023), Herder argues that, although the mind has a unified structure, human attempts to separate its faculties lead to malfunctions that must be avoided. Herder’s conception of the unity of the mind is embodied in four specific doctrines (Forster, 2023). The first doctrine addresses the relationship between thought and language. It holds that language not only expresses thought but also limits it, especially in children whose cognition develops alongside language acquisition. The second doctrine deals with the interdependence between cognition and will. In accordance with Forster (2023), Herder argues that although will depends on cognition, the reverse is also true: cognition depends on will and affect, highlighting the intrinsic connection between intellectual and emotional processes. A third doctrine pertains to the relationship between thought and sensation (Forster, 2023). Herder proposes that both concepts and beliefs depend on sensations, while the character of sensations also depends on concepts and beliefs. Normatively, he denounces the attempts of metaphysicians to disconnect thought from the empirical basis of sensations, which he considers the cause of intellectual malfunctions. Finally, the fourth doctrine concerns the unity of the faculties of sensation. According to Forster (2023), Herder posits that human nature implies a primordial fusion of perception with affective sensations, although human beings have the capacity to suspend this fusion. References Forster, M. (2023). Johann Gottfried von Herder. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy  (Winter 2023). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/herder/ Montagud Rubio, N. (2021, January 19). Johann Gottfried Herder: biografía de este filósofo alemán . Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/johann-gottfried-herder Irmscher, H. D. (2024). Johann Gottfried von Herder. In Encyclopedia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johann-Gottfried-von-Herder

When discussing evolution, one of the first names that comes to mind is Charles Darwin (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). However, Darwin was not the only significant figure in this field; other thinkers offered different perspectives on the evolution of species, and some even influenced Darwin’s work. Among these authors, one of the most notable is Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744–1829). Although Lamarck’s theories have lost popularity over time and have been replaced by more scientifically supported approaches, his initial contributions were crucial to the development of evolutionary thought. Lamarck was one of the first to separate the development of species from religious faith and is also recognized as the father of the term "biology" as we understand it today. According to Castillero Mimenza (2018), his evolutionary theory, although now obsolete, was one of the first to be truly coherent and systematic in its structure. Biography Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, known as Lamarck, was born on August 1, 1744, in Bazentin, a small town in the Picardy region of Somme, France (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). He was the eleventh child of Philippe Jacques de Monet de La Marck and Marie-Françoise de Fontaines de Chuignolles, who came from a noble family dedicated to the military. During his childhood, his father enrolled him in a Jesuit seminary, hoping that Lamarck would pursue an ecclesiastical career. According to Castillero Mimenza (2018), during his time at the seminary, Lamarck received general training in various disciplines within the religious field, including philosophy and theology. At the age of 15, due to his father’s death in 1759, he left the seminary and decided to join the army (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). At 17, in 1761, he bought a horse and enlisted as an officer. He quickly rose in rank and participated in the Seven Years' War. However, his military career was short-lived, as at the age of 20, he suffered a severe neck injury that caused scrofula, an infectious disease affecting the lymph nodes, forcing him to retire from the army. After his retirement, he moved to Paris, where he initially lived on a pension and inherited part of his father’s fortune. He attempted to dedicate himself to music but soon abandoned this pursuit to study medicine, devoting four years to botany. During this period of his life, according to Castillero Mimenza (2018), his interest in botany grew so strong that he decided to fully commit to the natural sciences, where he would find his true field of work. Through his tireless efforts, he gained recognition, and in 1779, he published his first major book, "Flore François", a botanical classification system of French species, in which he introduced a dichotomous method for describing plants (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). This publication allowed him to gain scientific notoriety, and soon after, he was named a member of the Academy of Sciences. In 1780, he was contacted by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Count of Buffon, to lead a mission in Europe to expand the botanical collection of the Jardin du Roi. According to Castillero Mimenza (2018), this mission was successful, further solidifying his reputation as a botanist. Shortly after Buffon's death in 1788, his successor, Flahault de la Billarderie, created a position for Lamarck as the "King’s Botanist and Keeper of the King’s Herbarium" (Burkhardt, 2024). From then on, he carried out his duties at the royal garden, known as the Jardin du Roi, until 1793 (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). During that period, he married Marie Annie Rosalie Delaforte, with whom he had five children, but she passed away in 1792. Following the French Revolution, and thanks to his influence, the garden was transformed into the National Museum of Natural History, where Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was appointed director of the department of lower animals, overseeing the study of insects and other invertebrates. According to Castillero Mimenza (2018), he coined the term "invertebrates" and developed the primary subdivisions of these animals, as well as introducing the concept of "biology" as the science of living organisms. In 1793, he married for the second time, to Victoire Charlotte Reverdy, with whom he had two more children, though she passed away in 1797 (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). A year later, he married for the third time, to Julie Mallet. During this period, he began teaching and wrote his most renowned work, "Natural History of Invertebrates", which was published between 1815 and 1822. During these studies, his theory of evolution also began to take shape. Additionally, in meteorology, he was a pioneer in weather prediction through probabilistic methods, suggesting that atmospheric behavior could be forecasted by understanding the causes of atmospheric alterations, such as the influence of the Sun, the Moon, and Earth's rotation. Despite his efforts, Castillero Mimenza (2018) indicates that Lamarck published several meteorological yearbooks that contained errors, leading to a decline in his prestige. Initially, Lamarck maintained that living beings did not undergo changes, but over time and through his research, he concluded that an evolutionary process existed (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). These ideas were presented in his work "Zoological Philosophy" in 1809, considered the first theoretical formulation of evolution, in which he proposed two fundamental laws: the first stated that the size and strength of organs change during an animal’s lifetime depending on their use, and the second asserted that these modifications are transmitted to subsequent generations (Castillero Mimenza, 2018; Ashworth, 2022). Lamarck concluded that species modify over time through the inheritance of acquired characteristics (Ashworth, 2022). Although his theory was rejected by figures such as Napoleon Bonaparte and criticized by scientists like Lavoisier and Georges Cuvier, who considered it unscientific, Castillero Mimenza (2018) notes that his work marked a milestone in the scientific debate of the time. In his later years, Lamarck’s health deteriorated progressively, and his relationships with various authors became increasingly strained, negatively impacting his reputation (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). One of his most notable disputes was with Lavoisier, whose theory on fluid dynamics was criticized by Lamarck for lacking scientific rigor. Lamarck’s work was dismissed as lacking objectivity, and his arguments were deemed overvalued, leading to a loss of credibility. Another significant conflict occurred with biologist Georges Cuvier, whose more empirical and experimental approach contradicted Lamarck’s theories. Cuvier even labeled Lamarck’s ideas as erroneous, deepening their rivalry. Over time, according to Castillero Mimenza (2018), Lamarck’s contributions to evolution became increasingly discredited, further deteriorating his prestige. In 1819, he lost his sight, forcing him to dictate some of his works to his daughters (Castillero Mimenza, 2018). During this same period, he suffered the loss of his third wife, Julie Mallet. The combination of his deteriorating health, his declining reputation, and his growing poverty led him into deep depression, and he spent his final years cared for by his daughters, receiving little public recognition. Lamarck passed away on December 18, 1829, at the age of 85 in Paris. Although his theory of evolution was eventually supplanted by Darwin’s, and despite being largely ignored in his later years, Lamarck’s ideas have been recognized as a significant advancement in the science of his time. According to Castillero Mimenza (2018), despite not achieving the fame he deserved during his lifetime, he is credited with crucial concepts such as invertebrates and biology , along with making important contributions to both botany and zoology. Evolution and Transformation of Species: Lamarck’s Theory Lamarck’s Theory, proposed in 1809, marked the formal beginning of studies on biological evolution (Salcedo, 2024). As a precursor to Darwin’s theory of evolution, it introduced the idea that current species evolved from simpler life forms and have undergone transformations over time. According to Salcedo (2024), Lamarck presented his perspective in the book "Philosophie Zoologique", where he proposed a mechanism to explain the evolutionary transition between species, based on two principles: the law of use and disuse, and the inheritance of acquired traits. Lamarck argued that organisms could develop new physical characteristics by repeatedly using certain parts of their body, and these modifications were then passed on to their offspring, contributing to the evolution of the species (Salcedo, 2024). The most illustrative example of this theory is the giraffe’s neck. According to Lamarck, ancestral giraffes, faced with the need to reach leaves on tall trees, would have progressively stretched their necks, eventually transmitting this trait to the rest of the species. In line with Salcedo (2024), this interpretation provided a model for understanding biological change, further supported by the discovery of fossils showing extinct species with anatomical structures similar to those of some current species. Despite the relevance of this theory in its time, Lamarck’s Theory has faced significant criticism, as it lacked solid scientific evidence to support its claims about the transmission of acquired traits (Salcedo, 2024). However, his proposal was essential in establishing a foundation for discussion and work in later evolutionary theories, including Darwin’s theory of natural selection, developed during the second half of the 19th century. The main difference between both theories lies in the evolutionary mechanism each postulates. Salcedo (2024) mentions that while Lamarck suggested that acquired traits during an organism's lifetime could be inherited, Darwin proposed that chance and natural selection guided the evolution of species, ensuring the survival of the fittest organisms in their environment. Lamarck’s Theory: Rejection, Re-evaluation, and Advances in Epigenetics In the 19th century, Lamarck’s theory of evolution faced notable rejection due to its opposition to the theories of fixism and catastrophism, which were highly regarded and strongly defended by the scientific community of the time (Salcedo, 2024). These theories, promoted by influential figures like George Cuvier, proposed that species were essentially immutable, except for sudden, violent, and rare changes. Cuvier, with great respect in the scientific community, supported these ideas, making it difficult for Lamarck’s evolutionary ideas to gain acceptance. As a result, according to Salcedo (2024), most naturalists of the time considered Lamarck’s theory to lack sufficient evidence to explain the evolutionary process of species. Today, however, scientific evidence suggests that several aspects of Lamarck’s theory are incorrect (Salcedo, 2024). Advances in genetics have shown that the inheritance of acquired traits is not possible, as only changes affecting the genetic material of gametes can be transmitted. In other words, for a characteristic to be inherited, chemical modifications must occur in the DNA. Since the first decade of the 21st century, however, the field of epigenetics has started reconsidering concepts similar to those of Lamarck. In particular, according to Salcedo (2024), some epigenetic discoveries have suggested that the environment can influence genetic expression in a way that could, in certain contexts, affect subsequent generations, partially reviving Lamarckian ideas that acquired traits may, under specific circumstances, have hereditary influence. Lamarck’s Legacy in Evolutionary Theory Although current research has demonstrated that evolution does not strictly follow the theories proposed by Lamarck, his contributions remain fundamental to the development of scientific knowledge in biology (Salcedo, 2024). His ideas, formulated in an adverse context, emerged at a time when evolutionary concepts were just beginning to be explored through the scientific method. This pioneering approach made his theories, in many ways, more revolutionary than those of Darwin. According to Salcedo (2024), Lamarck was the first to propose a complete theory of biological evolution, daring to challenge the fixism defended by Georges Cuvier, who maintained that living organisms were immutable and emerged spontaneously and definitively, sometimes under divine origin. Lamarck’s transformational vision completely broke with the paradigm imposed by fixism, paving the way for a new way of understanding the development and adaptation of living beings (Salcedo, 2024). In Lamarck’s time, the natural sciences were limited to describing the characteristics of organisms without delving into their origin or transformation. However, in accordance with Salcedo (2024), his work Philosophie Zoologique marked a turning point by introducing a dynamic perspective of living beings, laying the groundwork for what is now known as modern biology. References Ashworth, G. B. (2022, marzo 16). Jean-Baptiste Lamarck . The Linda Hall Library. https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/jean-baptiste-lamarck/ Burkhardt, R. W. (2024). Jean - Baptiste Lamarck. En Encyclopedia Britannica . https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Baptiste-Lamarck Castillero Mimenza, O. (2018, noviembre 2). Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: Biografía de Este Naturalista Francés . Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/jean-baptiste-lamarck Salcedo, M. (2024). Teoría de Lamarck . Enciclopedia Concepto. https://concepto.de/teoria-de-lamarck/

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