Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274) was a priest and theologian of the Dominican order within Roman Catholicism (Guzmán, n.d.). Despite his relatively short life, passing away at the age of 49, Thomas Aquinas left a colossal presence in the 13th century (Huffine, 2021). According to Guzmán (n.d.), he is considered one of the greatest philosophers of the scholastic tradition, defined as a theoretical movement that dominated much of the Middle Ages and used reason to understand the religious revelations of Christianity.
His thinking has enabled the development of highly significant theological and philosophical studies (Cajal, 2018). Similarly, his writings exert a strong influence on Christian theology, especially within the Catholic Church (Cajal, 2018). In line with Chenu (2021), in his role as a theologian, he was responsible for two masterpieces, the Summa Theologiae and the Summa Contra Gentiles, and as a poet, he left a notable legacy.
Biography
The exact date of his birth is unknown (Cajal, 2018). However, it is estimated that he was born in the year 1225 in the castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino, Italy (Guerri n.d.). He comes from parents who owned a modest feudal domain in a region constantly disputed by the emperor and the pope (Chenu, 2021). Landolfo de Aquino, his father, was of Lombard origin, while his mother, Teodora, came from the later invading Norman heritage (Chenu, 2021). In fact, his family expected him to follow the Benedictine path, as it was the intended destiny for any son of Italian nobility (Guzmán, n.d). Consequently, Saint Thomas Aquinas was sent to the Abbey of Montecassino at the age of 5 to train with Benedictine monks (Guerri n.d.). According to Cajal (2018), the teachings of the monks were closely related to silent meditation, as well as various fields such as music, grammar, religion, and morality.
In the year 1239, after nine years in this sanctuary of spiritual and cultural life, young Thomas was forced to return to his family when Emperor Frederick II expelled the monks due to their obedience to the Pope (Chenu, 2021). After this episode, he began attending the newly founded University of Naples, where he had access for the first time to scientific and philosophical works translated from Greek and Arabic (Chenu, 2021). He stayed there for five years, immersing himself abundantly in concepts associated with Aristotelian logic (Cajal, 2018). In the year 1243, he secretly joined a Dominican order, receiving the habit in 1244 (Guerri n.d.). During this period, he befriended Juan de Wildeshausen, the master general of the Dominican order (Cajal, 2018). According to Cajal (2018), this friendship facilitated Thomas's quick admission to the order.
When his family discovered his choice, they felt betrayed and decided to kidnap him (Guerri n.d.). Thomas's family kept him captive for a year, confined in the fortress of San Giovanni in Roccasecca. During this time, they tried to change his newfound beliefs (Guerri n.d.). Finally, after the confinement, he entered the Dominican School of Cologne in 1244 and in 1245 to the University of Paris, where he studied philosophy and theology under the tutelage of Albertus Magnus (Guzmán, n.d.). According to Guzmán (n.d.), around the year 1248, he was appointed a professor, formally initiating his academic, literary, and public life.
He continued his studies with the Dominicans in Naples, Paris, and Cologne (Guerri n.d.). He was ordained a priest in Cologne, Germany, in the year 1250 and then taught theology at the University of Paris. After completing his education, he devoted himself to a life of travel, writing, teaching, oratory, and preaching (Guerri n.d.). In the Easter of 1272, he returned to Italy to establish a Dominican study house at the University of Naples (Chenu, 2021). This move was in response to a request made by King Charles of Anjou, who wanted to revive the university. Chenu (2021) states that after participating in a general chapter of the Dominicans in Florence during Pentecost week and resolving some family matters, Saint Thomas Aquinas resumed his university teaching in Naples in October and continued until the end of the following year.
In January of 1274, Pope Gregory X personally summoned Saint Thomas Aquinas to the Second Council of Lyon, which was an attempt to repair the schism between the Latin and Greek churches (Chenu, 2021). On his way, he was affected by an illness, stopping at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossanova, where he died on March 7 of the same year (Chenu, 2021). According to Guzmán (n.d.), 50 years after his death, Thomas was canonized and recognized as one of the most fundamental thinkers of the Middle Ages.
Reason and Faith
Aquinas, recognized for his ability to distinguish between theological principles of faith and philosophical principles of reason, did not see them as contradictory but as sources of divine knowledge (Fairchild, 2019). He argued that humans could not attain true knowledge without God's assistance, who had the power to transform intellect into action (Guzmán, n.d.). However, humans could know parts of the world naturally without divine intervention. Thus, there were two components of true knowledge (Guzmán, n.d.). On one hand, truth is known through reason, i.e., through natural revelation. On the other hand, truth is known through faith, which corresponds to supernatural revelation. According to Guzmán (n.d.), the latter is accessible through sacred scripture and the teachings of prophets, while the former is related to human nature.
On a different note, Guerri (n.d.) mentions that for Saint Thomas Aquinas, it was possible to find rational arguments for the existence of God, primarily by observing movement in the world as evidence of God; observing cause and effect and identifying God as the cause of everything; concluding that the ephemeral nature of beings proves the existence of a necessary being, that is, God, who arises only within Himself; discovering different levels of human perfection and realizing that, therefore, there must be a supreme and perfect being; knowing that natural beings cannot have intelligence unless God grants it.
Free Will
Aquinas, despite his background as a philosopher and theologian, significantly influenced psychology's ideas due to his emphasis on the importance of free will (Guerri n.d.). According to him, each individual possesses an immortal soul that transcends the natural world; it traverses the realm of matter without being part of it, thus escaping natural law and causes and effects. This perspective supports the certainty that people have control over their behavior, making genuine decisions as human beings. If free will is a reality, it is both terrifying and wonderful. On the one hand, it is frightening as it places a significant burden on individuals, making them responsible for all their actions. On the other hand, it is marvelous as it distinguishes humans from robots and objects. However, in line with Cajal (2018), the existence of free will is not contrary to the existence of God.
Work
Summa Contra Gentiles
The text known as "Summa Contra Gentiles" is attributed to a period between the years 1260 and 1264, although there is some lack of consensus regarding the authenticity of this date (Cajal, 2018). Its purpose is generally interpreted as providing evidence to support the Catholic and Christian faith in hostile contexts. Within this work, carefully crafted arguments are presented with the specific aim of addressing the expressions of those who do not share this faith. It is argued that the book aims to support missionaries in their efforts to spread the word of God. According to Cajal (2018), these arguments could have been useful in disputes with Jews or Muslims, who were considered followers of Aristotelian philosophy.
Summa Theologiae
The Summa Theologica is a book that incorporates the teachings of Aristotle with the doctrines of early Christianity (Guerri s.f.). This book, written between the years 1265 and 1274, stands out as the most recognized theological essay of the Middle Ages and exerts a profound influence on Catholicism (Cajal, 2018). The main intention of this publication was not so much the defense of faith but rather to conceive it as a theological manual for teaching. Regarding its structure, a recurring pattern is observed (Cajal, 2018). It begins with a question that usually presents the opposing viewpoint, defended by Thomas. It then presents the arguments that, according to him, refute those presented at the beginning in the question, and then describes those that support his position. According to Cajal (2018), during the analysis, Thomas dedicated himself to expanding and conceiving his answers, and in the end, he addressed one by one all the arguments against the thesis.
The book is divided into three parts, with the third being incomplete, as Saint Thomas Aquinas claimed in his later years that a revelation indicated that everything he had written up to that point was useless and senseless (Cajal, 2018). Despite not completing the third part, Cajal (2018) highlights that Saint Thomas Aquinas's disciples completed it on his behalf, thus complementing the various works created in his youth.
Scriptum Super Quatuor Libris Sententiarum Magistri Petri Lombardi
This is Thomas's first work, which translates to "Commentary on the Four Books of Sentences of Peter Lombard" (Cajal, 2018). It is estimated that this work was written between the years 1254 and 1259. In this publication, Thomas examines the work of the theologian Peter Lombard, which addresses the exclusive sacraments of the church. Some scholars argue the existence of significant differences between Thomas's content in these comments and its expression in his more impartial work, the Summa Theologica (Cajal, 2018). However, the fact that the Summa Theologica was not completed by Thomas Aquinas could explain the divergences in the dispute between the two works of the religious philosopher. According to Cajal (2018), other scholars of Thomas pointed out that this book constitutes concrete evidence of how his thinking evolved over time.
Legacy
His biography is extremely simple; it narrates little, but some modest journeys during a career entirely devoted to university life: in Paris, in the Roman Curia, in Paris again, and in Naples (Chenu, 2021). However, it would be a mistake to judge that his life was nothing more than the quiet life of a professional teacher oblivious to the social and political affairs of his time. The drama unfolding in his mind and religious life found its causes and produced its effects in the university. According to Chenu (2021), in these academic centers, all the ingredients of a rapidly developing civilization came together, and the Christian church, deliberately and authoritatively, compromised its doctrine and spirit.
In this environment, he found the conditions for the elaboration of his work (Chenu, 2021). Not only did he have controversial opportunities to carry out his work, but also an immersive and penetrating spiritual environment necessary for his creation. It is in these contexts that it is possible today to discover the historical intelligibility of his work. Finally, in the year 1323, he was canonized as a saint and officially named a doctor of the church in 1567. Furthermore, he was proclaimed a protagonist of orthodoxy during the modernist crisis at the end of the 19th century. Despite this praise, the historical difficulties he faced in the 13th century during a radical theological renewal cannot be overlooked. This renewal, challenged at that time, was triggered by the social, cultural, and religious evolution of the West. According to Chenu (2021), he was at the heart of the doctrinal crisis that faced Christendom when the discovery of Greek science, culture, and thought seemed on the verge of crushing it.
References
Cajal, A. (2018). Santo Tomás de Aquino: Biografía, Filosofía, Aportes. Lifeder. Recuperado 10 August 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/aportaciones-santo-tomas-aquino/
Chenu, M. (2021). Saint Thomas Aquinas | Biography, Books, Natural Law, Summa Theologica, Saint, Philosophy, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 10 August 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas
Fairchild, M. (2019). Biography of Thomas Aquinas, Doctor of the Angels. Learn Religions. Recuperado 11 August 2021, a partir de https://www.learnreligions.com/thomas-aquinas-4769163
Guerri, M. TOMÁS DE AQUINO (1225-1274). Psicoactiva. Recuperado 10 August 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biografias/tomas-de-aquino/
Guzmán, G. Santo Tomás de Aquino: biografía de este filósofo y teólogo. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 10 August 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/santo-tomas-aquino
Huffine, N. (2021). Thomas Aquinas. World History Encyclopedia. Recuperado 10 August 2021, a partir de https://www.worldhistory.org/Thomas_Aquinas/
