Western philosophy has its foundations in the ideas of three great ancient Greek philosophers: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). Despite their unique connection, each took their own path, and it was Aristotle who consolidated their efforts, exerting a lasting influence on philosophy, theology, and practically all scientific and humanistic disciplines (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). Indeed, according to Guerri (s.f.), Aristotle can be considered the true father of psychology, as he was responsible for the theoretical and philosophical framework that contributed to the early development of this discipline.
Aristotle's legacy in psychology is reflected in his book, "De Anima," which can be regarded as the first treatise on psychology (Guerri, s.f.), addressing not only metaphysical aspects but also issues related to perception and memory (Aguirre, 2017). In fact, in line with Aguirre (2017), he dedicated a special study to the analysis of memory, conceptualizing it as the ability to reproduce existing representations, thus opening the doors to a more detailed exploration of psychology and its connection to human cognition.
Biography
Aristotle of Stagira was born in Macedonia in 384 B.C., in what is now known as northern Greece (Shields, 2000). His father, Nicomachus, served as the personal physician to the Macedonian monarch Amintas III, father of Philip II and grandfather of Alexander the Great—two figures who had a significant impact on the scholar's life (de Medici, 2020). According to Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004), both his father and mother, Festis, belonged to the Asclepiad family, claiming descent from the god considered the founder of medicine, passing down their knowledge from generation to generation.
After his father's death in 367 B.C., the young Aristotle was entrusted to the care of his relative Proxenus, who recognized his extraordinary intellect and insatiable curiosity (de Medici, 2020). Consequently, as noted by Kenny (2021), Aristotle migrated to Athens, where he joined Plato's Academy and remained for around 20 years.
Aristotle consistently expressed deep gratitude towards Plato, adopting much of his philosophical agenda (Kenny, 2021). Rather than rejecting Plato's doctrines, Aristotle's teachings are perceived as a modification of them. However, unlike Plato, Aristotle distinguished himself with a pragmatic approach, focused on studying the tangible, observable, and understandable world (de Medici, 2020). Therefore, according to Kenny (2021), this perspective led Aristotle to distance himself from Plato's Theory of Ideas.
When Plato passed away around 348 B.C., his nephew Speusippus took over the leadership of the Academy (Kenny, 2021). Traditional narratives suggest that Aristotle left Athens due to dissatisfaction with the management of the Academy (Guerri, s.f.). However, as Guerri (s.f.) suggests, his departure might also have been motivated by concerns related to anti-Macedonian sentiments, prompting him to leave before Plato's death.
He then moved to Assus, a city on the northwest coast of Anatolia, in present-day Turkey, where Hermias, a graduate of the Academy, ruled (Kenny, 2021). In Assus, Aristotle formed a close friendship with Hermias and eventually married his pupil Pythias, with whom he had a daughter. During his time in Assus, Aristotle collaborated with Hermias to negotiate an alliance with Macedonia, leading to the Persian king's fury and the treacherous arrest and execution of Hermias (Kenny, 2021). Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004) narrate that after Hermias's murder in 345 B.C., Aristotle settled in Mytilene, where, alongside Theophrastus, he dedicated himself to the study of biology.
In 343 B.C., Philip II of Macedonia extended an invitation to Aristotle to take on the role of tutor to his son, Alexander the Great—a relationship that lasted approximately two to three years (Guerri, s.f.). Kenny (2021) mentions that although information about the content of Aristotle's instruction is limited, the Rhetoric to Alexander, which was part of the Aristotelian corpus for centuries, is now commonly considered a forgery.
Around 335 B.C., Aristotle returned to Athens, where he devoted himself to the study and teaching of various subjects, including logic, epistemology, physics, biology, political ethics, and aesthetics (Guerri, s.f.). According to de Medici (2020), during this period, his wife Pythias passed away, marking the beginning of a new relationship with Herpilis, possibly his servant; although there is no evidence of marriage, she bore him a second child, Nicomachus.
In Athens, he established his own school called the Lyceum, where, for the next twelve years, he imparted various courses (Guerri, s.f.). A large number of disciples, whom he called "Peripatetics," quickly gathered around him (de Medici, 2020). According to de Medici (2020), it was during this period that Aristotle wrote most of his works, initially as lecture material, later compiled by disciples and followers of Aristotelian thought.
During Aristotle's years at the Lyceum, his relationship with his former student Alexander apparently cooled (Kenny, 2021). As Alexander developed increasing megalomania, even proclaiming himself divine and demanding the worship of the Greeks, resistance arose, led by Callisthenes, Aristotle's nephew and appointed historian of Alexander's Asian expedition at the philosopher's recommendation. Tragically, Callisthenes was falsely accused of conspiracy and executed (Kenny, 2021). According to de Medici (2020), the loss of his nephew marked the definitive estrangement of Aristotle from his famous disciple, lamenting the latter's transformation into a tyrant.
When Alexander died in 323 B.C., the presence of the Macedonians caused tensions in democratic Athens, even among those who opposed imperialism (Kenny, 2021). Although there is little evidence, there are deep-rooted beliefs that the philosopher Aristotle played a crucial role in Alexander's death (Guerri, s.f.). Despite remaining completely distant from his former disciple, Aristotle considered it prudent to leave Athens, facing accusations of blasphemy, the same crime that led to Socrates's death by radical Athenian democracy (de Medici, 2020). According to Kenny (2021), this philosopher expressed his desire that the city, which had condemned Socrates, would not sin again against philosophy; therefore, he fled to Chalcis, where he died the following year.
His surviving will makes careful provision for a large number of friends and dependents (Kenny, 2021). To Theophrastus, his successor as head of the Lyceum, he left his library, which included his extensive writings. Although Aristotle's surviving works amount to around a million words, they probably represent only a fifth of his total production (Kenny, 2021). Finally, according to de Medici (2020), after the founder's death, the Peripatetic school shifted its focus to the natural sciences, while other schools paid more attention to the social sciences.
Positive Psychology
Although positive psychology has found its place on the shelves, the essence driving it is not exactly groundbreaking (Lemos, 2018). In fact, some of the ideas shaping this field of study have their roots in the philosophy of Aristotle (Crego, 2018). According to Crego (2018), in particular, character strengths, linked to happiness and life satisfaction, bear similarities to Aristotelian virtue ethics, which are qualities that can exert a positive influence on behavior.
In many cases, this literature is perceived as somewhat illusory, as some authors don't hesitate to exaggerate its impact, giving the impression that adopting the principles of positive psychology will open a world of pleasant experiences, as if they had removed all the thorns from roses (Lemos, 2018). This is because the goal of this literature is to convey positivity and contribute to the happiness of readers. However, according to Lemos (2018), these books in no way replace the significant assistance provided by psychologists in their consultations.
The Soul
At that time, the prevailing conception divided the universe into two worlds: the world of ideas, characterized by perfection and unreality, and the material world, the tangible and less-than-perfect realm (Guerri, n.d.). However, in line with Guerri (n.d.), Aristotle upheld the existence of a single world, the real one, considering nature as something sacred. In this perspective, all things could manifest in two ways: in actuality, when all their properties are expressed simultaneously, and in potentiality, when these properties have not yet developed but are destined to emerge in the future.
Similarly, Aristotle showed significant interest in unraveling the connection between psychological processes and underlying physiological phenomena. He posited that the body and mind are distinct aspects of the same existence, with the mind being one of the functions of the body (Guerri, n.d.). According to Aristotle, the soul was not a separate substance but intrinsically linked to a specific body; there was no soul without a body. Ribes (2004) notes that the soul was considered a predicate of a special type of body: living bodies capable of self-nourishment, growth, and corruption.
Additionally, Aristotle viewed the soul as the highest activity of the human body, which he called reality or entelechy (Aguirre, 2017). Thus, just as sensory faculties are essential to being an animal, having a mind is crucial to being a human being (Shields, 2000). However, human minds are not limited to comprehension alone. According to Shields (2000), it is equally crucial for humans to plan, deliberate, reflect on alternatives, devise strategies, and, in general, chart courses of action.
In Aristotle's thought, the soul has a superior part called nous, which has no beginning or end, and he identifies it as intellect (Aguirre, 2017). This intellectual entity is divided into two components: passive intellect and active intellect (Guerri, n.d.). Except for this portion, all other parts of the soul deteriorate until death, analogous to the body itself (Aguirre, 2017). In accordance with Shields (2000), the investigation of the soul holds special importance for Aristotle, as studying the mind delves into the essence that distinguishes humans.
Aristotle conceived the existence of three types of souls, each corresponding to different living beings (Aguirre, 2017). First, the vegetative soul, present in plants, focuses on survival through processes like nutrition and reproduction. Second, the sensitive soul, attributed to animals, allows for experiencing sensations and pain. As a notable disciple of Plato, Aristotle explores the faculties of this soul, linking mental functions with biological value, such as the pursuit of pleasure, avoidance of pain, imagination, memory, and movement in response to desire. Finally, he identifies the rational soul, exclusive to humans, whose purpose is the pursuit of knowledge, understanding of good and evil, and the search for happiness. According to Aguirre (2017), Aristotle maintains that it is this third capacity of the rational soul that can transcend beyond death, while the other two inevitably perish with the body.
The Theory of Knowledge
In the history of philosophy, Aristotle's theory of knowledge emerges as an intellectually significant component in the construction of Western culture (Torres, n.d.). This substantial contribution lies in Aristotle's conception that cognitive processes unfold through the senses. Additionally, the philosopher maintained the idea that the mind, at birth, is like a blank slate, attributing all knowledge to the process of learning (Guerri, n.d.). Furthermore, in line with Guerri (n.d.), learning, according to Aristotle, is intrinsically linked to memory, which operates based on similarity—meaning, when individuals establish connections between similar elements; contrast, which occurs when individuals perceive differences; and continuity, understood as the ability to recall events or concepts that share time and space.
Motivation
Aristotle supported the idea that human motivation is governed by two fundamental forces: attraction to the pleasurable and aversion to the unpleasant (Guerri, n.d.). In simple terms, the mind guides individuals toward the pleasurable and steers them away from the unpleasant. Therefore, in accordance with Guerri (n.d.), the ultimate goal of any motivation is to achieve happiness, and this accomplishment is realized through the continuous pursuit of self - improvement, that is, the process by which a person becomes more perfect and complete.
Aristotle's Theories Today
Aristotle stands out as one of the most memorable Greek philosophers in history (Torres, n.d.). According to Martinez (n.d.), tackling Aristotle's legacy proves to be an almost colossal task. This is because a significant portion of the highly developed sciences today would not have reached their current level, or at least not as rapidly, without the data collection and systematic observation methods proposed by Aristotle.
Additionally, Aristotle's perspectives on psychological matters have left a profound mark on our understanding of human behavior throughout the centuries (Guerri, n.d.). In particular, his doctrines have significantly influenced Western premises on learning and motivation (Guerri, n.d.). Thus, Aristotle emerges as a pillar and precursor of modern psychology, despite focusing his studies on the soul rather than the mind (Aguirre, 2017). Similarly, according to Martinez (n.d.), he provided a significant boost to physics, biology, astronomy, as well as other disciplines like politics and economics.
Like Plato, his work in epistemological philosophy laid the foundations of Western culture under the influence of Christianity, which in the Middle Ages articulated its explanations about nature using this philosopher's thinking (Torres, n.d.). Although the influence of the church is not as evident today, many elements used to shape its doctrine remain valid, with Aristotle's thoughts being one of them. In fact, according to Torres (n.d.), since the Renaissance, while questioning whether knowledge was a divine revelation, the principles of Aristotle were strengthened, leading to one of the main philosophical currents, such as empiricism, being attributed entirely to Aristotle's works.
References
Aguirre, E. (2017). Aristóteles, la filosofía y la psicología. Desde el estudio del alma a la colonización de subjetividades. Derechoareplica.org. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://derechoareplica.org/index.php/filosofia/1089-aristoteles-la-filosofia-y-la-psicologia-desde-el-estudio-del-alma-a-la-colonizacion-de-subjetividades
Crego, A. (2018). Aristóteles y la Psicología Positiva. Investigación y Ciencia. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://www.investigacionyciencia.es/blogs/psicologia-y-neurociencia/52/posts/aristteles-y-la-psicologa-positiva-16192
de Medici, A. (2020). Aristóteles, el pensador polifacético. historia.nationalgeographic.com.es. Recuperado 30 May 2021, a partir de https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/aristoteles-pensador-polifacetico_15153
Guerri, M. Biografía de ARISTÓTELES (384-322 a. C.). PsicoActiva.com: Psicología, test y ocio Inteligente. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biografias/aristoteles/
Kenny, A. (2021). Aristotle | Biography, Works, Quotes, Philosophy, Ethics, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 29 May 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle
Lemos, R. (2018). Aristóteles y su influencia en la psicología positiva. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/aristoteles-y-su-influencia-en-la-psicologia-positiva/
Martínez, L. Aristóteles: biografía de uno de los referentes de la filosofía griega. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 30 May 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/aristoteles
Ribes, E. (2004). BEHAVIOR IS ABSTRACTION, NOT OSTENSION: CONCEPTUAL AND HISTORICAL REMARKS ON THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY. Behavior.org. Recuperado 30 May 2021, a partir de http://www.behavior.org/resources/147.pdf
Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Aristóteles. Biografía. Biografiasyvidas.com. Recuperado 30 May 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/monografia/aristoteles/
Torres, A. La teoría del conocimiento de Aristóteles, en 4 claves. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/teoria-conocimiento-aristoteles
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