Every science has its origin and history, and it is important to know it in order to better understand the subject (Pradas, 2018). Since the beginning of its history, humans have proposed various hypotheses and theories about psychological functions and mental disorders (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, there have always been different figures whose basic mission is to understand the soul of people (Martínez, 2019). According to Martínez (2019), priests, monks, magicians, witches, santeros, philosophers, and physicians provide answers and remedies for people's psychological world.
Psychology is an exciting field and the history of psychology provides an opportunity to understand how it has grown and developed (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Despite the predominance of the scientific method, very ancient concepts still have some influence today, such as the attribution of illness to the effects of spirits or the separation between body and soul (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, according to Cherry (2020), contemporary psychology is interested in a wide variety of topics related to human behavior and mental processes, from the neuronal level to the cultural level.
Ancient Age
Although psychology did not emerge independently until the late 19th century, its earliest history dates back to the time of the ancient Greeks (Cherry, 2020). The term psychology comes from the Greek words psyche and logos, which can be translated as the study of the soul (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), during this period, mental disorders were believed to be the result of possession by spirits and demons, and treatments consisted of spells and incantations, which were believed to have healing effects.
Between the 5th and 4th centuries BC, philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Hippocrates, and Aristotle made contributions that were of great importance for the development of psychology (Grandío, n.d.; Guerri, n.d.). Socrates laid the foundations of the scientific method; Plato envisioned the body as the vehicle of the soul, responsible for human behavior; Hippocrates examined physical and mental illnesses through the inductive method and attributed them to imbalances in bodily fluids or humors (Grandío, n.d.), and Aristotle, according to Guerri (n.d.), mentioned that the mind or psyche is the first act of all things, since it is what allows people to feel and perceive.
Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, European thought was dominated by Christianity, which caused a clear setback in scientific progress (Grandío, n.d.). Although Greco-Roman theories about humors remained valid, according to Grandío (n.d.), they were combined once again with magical and diabolical beliefs. For instance, it was thought that madness was caused by the commission of sins and could be cured through prayer and exorcism.
On the other hand, in the Arab world, medicine and psychology continued to develop during the Middle Ages (Grandío, n.d.). As Grandío (n.d.) explains, mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, dementia, or hallucinations were described, humanitarian treatments were applied to those who suffered, and basic psychological processes began to be studied.
There were also related developments in Asian psychology (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), Hindu philosophy analyzed the concept of the self, while in China, tests were applied in the field of education, and the first known psychological experiment was carried out, which involved drawing a circle with one hand and a square with the other to evaluate resistance to distraction.
Renaissance and Enlightenment
Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in the Western world, the demonological conception of mental illness coexisted with humanism (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), the restoration of the influence of classical Greek and Roman writers plays a fundamental role in this second variant, which links psychological disorders to physical rather than moral changes.
During this historical period, the term psychology became popular (Grandío, n.d.). In this sense, the works of philosophers Marko Marulić, Rudolph Goclenius, and Christian Wolff are especially important (Grandío, n.d.). Along the same lines, Immanuel Kant, an author very concerned with human thought and the way people perceive reality, argues that there is a priori knowledge of the reality of things, and then the mind adds its own order to sensations, meaning that humans do not have a passive mind.
Likewise, it is worth mentioning the influence of philosophers such as René Descartes, who contributes to the dualism that separates the body from the soul; Baruch Spinoza, who questions it, or John Locke, who asserts that the mind depends on environmental influences (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, the physician Thomas Willis attributes mental disorders to changes in the nervous system (Grandío, n.d.). In short, according to Guerri (n.d.), at this point, psychology begins to be interested in subjectivity, that is, the self behind everything.
At the end of the 18th century, Franz Joseph Gall and Franz Mesmer are also influential; the former introduces phrenology, according to which mental functions depend on the size of specific areas of the brain, while mesmerism attributes physical and psychological changes to the effect of magnetic energy on bodily fluids (Grandío, n.d.). However, according to Cherry (2020), the proposals of the influential authors mentioned above are still debated by psychologists today.
On the other hand, psychiatry was preceded by alienism, represented mainly by Philippe Pinel and his disciple Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), Pinel advocates for the ethical treatment of mental illnesses and diagnostic classification, while Esquirol promotes the use of statistical data to analyze the effectiveness of psychological interventions.
19th Century
In the 19th century, knowledge about the anatomy of the brain allowed for the understanding of mental processes as a result of biology, thanks to the contributions of Gustav Theodor Fechner, Pierre Paul Broca, and Carl Wernicke in the field of neuropsychology, according to Grandío (n.d.). The work of German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz was also noteworthy, as he measured the speed of nerve impulses and demonstrated that senses can deceive people (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Baker & Sperry (2021) argue that an important implication of his work is that there is a physical and psychological reality, and the two are not identical.
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution influenced various fields, including psychology, by allowing a better understanding of how humans and other animals adapt, and how natural selection shapes behavior and cognitive abilities (Grandío, n.d.). However, according to Grandío (n.d.), the theory was also misinterpreted and misused by eugenicists to justify the superiority of certain races and the inferiority of others, promoting inhumane practices such as forced sterilization and birth control.
In the mid-19th century, German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to study reaction time (Cherry, 2020). In his book "Principles of Physiological Psychology," published in 1873, Wundt outlines many of the key connections between physiology and the study of human thought and behavior, according to Cherry (2020).
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig, Germany, where knowledge from different scientific fields was combined. This is why Wundt is often referred to as the father of scientific psychology (Grandío, n.d.). This event is also considered the official beginning of psychology as an independent and unique scientific discipline (Cherry, 2020). According to the International University of Valencia (2016), it is a very important milestone in the history of psychology because since then, significant advances have been made in the study of psychological processes and behavior through experimentation.
However, some experts argue that Gustav Theodor Fechner had paved the way for the emergence of this discipline by testing equations to quantify the relationship between a physical stimulus and related sensations. His work is called psychophysics and serves as a basis for the new science of psychology (Baker & Sperry, 2021). But, according to Guerri (n.d.), what was initially considered very important was discovered not to be so, and these formulas were not used.
Granville Stanley Hall founded the first psychology laboratory in the United States in 1883, the first American psychology journal in 1887, and the American Psychological Association in 1892 (Grandío, n.d.; Baker & Sperry, 2021). In 1909, he invited Sigmund Freud to Clark University (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Under the influence of the theory of evolution, Hall was interested in the process of human adaptation and development, using different surveys and questionnaires to study children and writing about early childhood development and education. However, according to Baker & Sperry (2021), at that time, graduate training in psychology was restricted for women and almost non-existent for African Americans.
Regarding experimental psychology, Pradas (2018) highlights that it presented a revolutionary declaration: the study of human thought requires experimentation and scientific foundations. According to Pradas (2018), two diametrically opposed principles in psychology emerged: on one hand, it is said that the human mind can only be studied through subjective analysis and projection of thought, and on the other hand, it is mentioned that psychology must be a purely experimental and empirical science.
Psychiatry has been a discipline in constant evolution throughout its history (Grandío, n.d.). The contribution of Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum and Emil Kraepelin has been fundamental for the development of this medical area. Kahlbaum was one of the first to study mental illnesses as separate and defined clinical entities. His work allowed for a greater understanding of pathologies such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and his contribution laid the foundations for the development of a modern and scientific psychiatry. On the other hand, Grandío (n.d.) mentions that Kraepelin was one of the first to use clinical and evolutionary criteria to classify mental disorders, allowing for greater precision in the diagnosis and treatment of these disorders.
Functionalism and structuralism were two influential schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Grandío, n.d.). Structuralism, founded by Edward Titchener, emphasized the content of thought, i.e., feelings and thoughts (Cherry, 2020; Baker & Sperry, 2021). Titchener excluded people with intellectual disabilities, children, and animals from his study, making it limited and subjective. On the other hand, William James' functionalism studied mental functions and used direct observation to study human thought and behavior (Cherry, 2020; Baker & Sperry, 2021). Additionally, according to Baker and Sperry (2021), functionalists were interested in the activity and behavior of the mind, and their approach paved the way for the study of various approaches, including animal and comparative psychology.
Simultaneously, Jean-Martin Charcot and Joseph Breuer studied hypnosis and hysteria, developing research and ideas that inspired Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century (Grandío, n.d.). In Russia, Ivan Pavlov and Vladimir Bekhterev developed hand reflexology. According to Grandío (n.d.), these contributions established the basis of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, two directions that dominated psychology in the first half of the 20th century.
20th Century
The psychoanalysis proposed by Sigmund Freud is one of the main theoretical currents in modern psychology, emphasizing the importance of the unconscious in adult personality and behavior (Grandío, n.d.; Cherry, 2020). According to Grandío (n.d.), Freud developed psychoanalysis through his clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other illnesses, popularizing verbal therapy and the concept of the unconscious from a psychoanalytic perspective.
Behaviorism, developed by John Watson and Burrhus F. Skinner, focuses on observable behaviors, rejecting both emphasis on conscious and unconscious mind (Cherry, 2020). In accordance with Baker & Sperry (2021), behaviorism considers open and observable behavior as an appropriate subject for psychology and seeks to derive laws of learning that help predict and control behavior.
Gestalt psychology, developed in Germany, believes that studying the entirety of any experience is richer than studying individual aspects, in contrast to Wundt's reductionist approach (Baker & Sperry, 2021). According to Martínez (2019), gestalt psychologists suggest that the brain often processes information simultaneously rather than sequentially, recommending a holistic study of phenomena, with the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.
In the history of psychology, behaviorism has been a dominant current for several decades (Baker & Sperry, 2021). However, in the 1960s, psychologists began to recognize that behaviorism was insufficient to fully explain human behavior due to its lack of consideration for mental processes (Baker & Sperry, 2021). As a result, cognitive psychology emerged, which focused on the study of basic and complex psychological processes and gained popularity in the same decade (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), authors such as George Kelly, Albert Ellis, and Aaron Beck are included in cognitivism.
Cognitive psychology, which emphasizes both observable behaviors and mental processes, began to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism (Cherry, 2020). Since then, it has continued to be a dominant current in psychology, and researchers have continued to study aspects such as perception, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and language. According to Cherry (2020), the introduction of brain imaging tools such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography (PET) has significantly improved researchers' ability to study the internal functioning of the human brain.
While the first half of the 20th century was marked by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, the second half saw the emergence of a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology (Cherry, 2020). This theoretical orientation is represented by Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, among others (Grandío, n.d.). In accordance with Grandío (n.d.), the emergence of humanism is a response to the predominance of psychoanalysis and behaviorism and advocates the idea that individuals are free, unique, inclined towards self-realization, and have the right to dignity.
In the same line of thought, corresponding to Grandío (s.f.), in the 20th century there was a significant increase in knowledge about biology, medicine, and pharmacology, which promoted the dominance of these sciences over psychology and influenced the development of interdisciplinary fields such as psychobiology, neuropsychology, and psychopharmacology.
The Last Decades
Psychology has continued to evolve since the 1960s, introducing new ideas and perspectives (Cherry, 2020). The development of the science of mental processes and behavior has been marked by the growth of neuroscience, ongoing dialogue with cognitive sciences, and behavioral economics (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, although still present in Argentina and France, schools related to psychoanalysis have lost much of their existence and hegemony. According to Grandío (n.d.), this leads to the prevalence of a psychological conception in which neuroscience and cognitive-behavioral psychology exchange tools and knowledge in research and intervention.
However, the criticisms that behaviorism makes against the mentalistic and subjectivist notions of psychology remain valid (Grandío, n.d.). Correspondingly, according to Grandío (n.d.), this means that cognitivism and psychoanalysis, as well as all points of view belonging to humanistic psychology, are severely criticized, among other things, for working based on highly abstract and poorly defined concepts, under which completely different and unrelated meanings can be placed.
Still, behaviorism remains a minority philosophy in psychology, while cognitivism enjoys very good health (Grandío, n.d.). Of course, according to Grandío (n.d.), the vast majority of research in experimental cognitive psychology is based on methodological behaviorism, which leads to some contradictions: on the one hand, psychological phenomena are considered as elements located inside the human brain, and on the other hand, this element is studied by creating stimuli and measuring objective responses.
Finally, despite the differences in the different coexisting methods and approaches, they all have the same goal: to understand the function and complexity of human thought (Martínez, 2019). This is why most psychologists today do not identify with a single school of thought (Cherry, 2020). Instead, they focus on a specific area or perspective and rely on ideas from different theoretical backgrounds. According to Cherry (2020), this eclectic approach provides new ideas and theories that will continue to shape psychology in the years to come.
References
Baker, D., & Sperry, H. (2021). History of Psychology. Noba. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://nobaproject.com/modules/history-of-psychology
Cherry, K. (2020). The Origins of Psychology: History Through the Years. Verywell Mind. Recuperado 30 March 2021, a partir de https://www.verywellmind.com/a-brief-history-of-psychology-through-the-years-2795245
Grandío, A. Historia de la Psicología: autores y teorías principales. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/historia-de-la-psicologia
Guerri, M. Breve Historia de la Psicología. PsicoActiva.com: Psicología, test y ocio Inteligente. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biblioteca-de-psicologia/historia-de-la-psicologia/
Martínez, L. (2019). Historia de la Psicología. Psiko blog. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psiko.es/blog/2019/09/25/historia-de-la-psicologia/
Pradas, C. (2018). El origen de la psicología: resumen y autores. psicologia-online.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/el-origen-de-la-psicologia-resumen-y-autores-4248.html
Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2016). Psicología científica: ¿qué es y cómo ha evolucionado?. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/co/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/psicologia-cientifica-que-es-y-como-ha-evolucionado
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