Plato was a highly productive author whose works took the form of dialogues, thus applying the Socratic method (Meinwald, 2020). Plato was the first author to use dialogue to expound his philosophical thoughts, introducing a new cultural element: the confrontation of different points of view and the psychological characterization of the interlocutors (Suiza, Fernández & Tamaro). According to Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004), this marked a new culture in which poetic or oracular expression no longer had a place, but rather the debate to establish understanding, based on the free exchange of ideas and not mere assertions.
However, the original order of Plato's Dialogues cannot be determined with certainty (Meinwald, 2020). Nevertheless, the conjecture regarding chronology was based on two types of considerations. First, the perceived evolution of content, and second, the study of specific characteristics of prose style, aided by technology (Meinwald, 2020). According to Imaginario (n.d.), by combining these two observations, scholars arrived at an approximate grouping of widely used works: the period of youth or Socratic dialogues (393 - 389 BC), the transitional period or transitional dialogues (388 - 385 BC), the period of maturity or critical dialogues (385 - 371 BC), and the polemical dialogues (370 - 347 BC).
Each of Plato's dialogues was essentially transmitted as he left them (Meinwald, 2020). However, it is important to consider the causal chain connecting modern readers with the Greek authors of Plato's time. To survive until the era of printing, the words of an ancient author had to be copied by hand, and the copies had to be copied, and so on over the centuries, by which time the original would have long disappeared. According to Meinwald (2020), this process of copying inevitably led to some corruption, often reflected in discrepancies among different manuscript traditions.
Even if any Platonic text had survived, it would bear no resemblance to what is published in a modern edition of Plato's works, as writing in Plato's time did not use word divisions, punctuation, or the current distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters (Meinwald, 2020). Corresponding to Meinwald (2020), these characteristics are the result of contributions from scholars across many generations and countries, as well as ongoing efforts to correct corruption.
Socratic Dialogues or Youth Period (393 - 389 b.C.)
Euthyphro or On Holiness
The dialogue between Euthyphro and Socrates deals with the nature of the sacred (Imaginary, n.d.). Questions are raised about whether the sacred is what the gods love or whether the gods love the sacred because it possesses certain intrinsic qualities. According to Imaginary (n.d.), despite Socrates' efforts to obtain a precise definition, no clear conclusion is reached on the subject.
Apology of Socrates
In this dialogue, Socrates presents his arguments during his trial, which ended with his death (Imaginary, n.d.). Socrates explained that the reason for the shame he had caused to many of his contemporaries was due to an oracle of Delphi given to Chaerephon, who claimed that no one was wiser than Socrates (Meinwald, 2020). Furthermore, according to Imaginary (n.d.), Socrates defended himself against the accusations of trying to unravel divine mysteries, arguing that his teachings aligned with a mandate from the god of Delphi.
Crito or Duty
The dialogue between Crito and Socrates addresses the duty of citizens to obey the laws of the state (Meinwald, 2020). Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.) and Meinwald (2020) mention that, despite facing an unjust death sentence, Socrates chooses to stay and face his execution, arguing that it is necessary to be consistent with the principles and values he has upheld throughout his life.
Ion or On Poetry
The dialogue between Socrates and Ion discusses the question of whether poetry can be considered a legitimate art (Imaginary, n.d.). Ion defends the idea that poets are professionals, but Socrates questions whether they truly possess profound knowledge (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Additionally, the question of the source of poetic inspiration is raised, with Ion arguing that it comes from the gods (Imaginary, n.d.). However, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates doubts whether poets truly understand the meaning of their own words.
Lysis or On Friendship
This book presents a dialogue between Socrates, Lysis, Hippothales, Ctesippus, and Menexenus, where Plato reflects on the nature of friendship (Imaginary, n.d.). The author focuses on the reconstruction of previous theories and highlights the importance of analyzing past ideas to develop a deeper understanding of friendship. Imaginary (n.d.) mentions that through this dialogue, Plato seeks to expand our understanding of this fundamental human relationship.
Charmides or On Wisdom
In a dialogue involving Socrates, Chaerephon, Critias, and Charmides, the topic of wisdom is addressed, and different perspectives on its nature are questioned (Imaginary, n.d.). Furthermore, concepts such as temperance and self-knowledge are explored (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). In this fictitious and early context of the dialogue, Charmides is presented as a young man with great potential. According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue evolves from a story about conduct to an attempt to specify the underlying state that explains it but ends up generating puzzles related to the reflective application of knowledge.
Laches or On Courage
This dialogue explores the importance of courage as a means to address Plato's true interest: the physical and moral education of children (Imaginary, n.d.). It is a conversation between Socrates, the elders Melesias and Lysimachus, their sons, Aristides and Thucydides, as well as the Athenian generals Nicias and Laches (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogue raises concerns that the sons of prominent men may fail to develop properly, leading to a reflection on the nature of courage (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Again, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), courage tends to be treated as a narrative about behavior or an attempt to define its internal state, but none of the participants demonstrate a proper understanding of these ideas.
Protagoras or The Sophists
The following theatrical dialogue addresses the topic of virtue or excellence, exposing Plato's views in relation to the sophists, who are criticized by Socrates (Imaginary, n.d.). A notable aspect is that this dialogue reflects Socrates' suggestion that virtue is equivalent to wisdom, as well as analyzing the Socratic position that akrasia, or moral weakness, is impossible (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates indicates that, in cases of akrasia, what occurs is a miscalculation: by considering pleasure as the ultimate good, the total magnitude of pleasure resulting from someone's action is incorrectly underestimated.
Euthydemus or The Disputant
In this dialogue, Plato presents two conversations: one between Socrates and Crito, and another between Socrates, Euthydemus, and Dionysodorus (Imaginary, n.d.). Plato's goal, according to Imaginary (n.d.), is to refute sophist rhetoric and defend the Socratic method.
Transitional Dialogues or Period of Transition (388 - 385 b.C.)
Greater Hipias or What is Beauty?
The Greater Hippias, also known as the First Hippias, is a work by Plato that addresses the topic of beauty through a dialogue between Socrates and Hippias of Elis (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Imaginary (n.d.), this writing is of great importance for the development of aesthetics as a philosophical discipline.
Gorgias or On Rhetoric
In this dialogue, Socrates engages in a conversation with Gorgias of Leontini, Polus of Agrigento, and Callicles of Athens (Imaginary, n.d.). During this interaction, Plato employs rhetoric or the art of persuasion to expose the value and principles of this subject, addressing concepts such as beauty and ugliness, justice and injustice, and ultimately, the good (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates argues that the skills of the legislator and the judge aim at the health of the soul, while orators deceive by focusing on the pleasant rather than the good.
Additionally, a controversy arises regarding whether those who can achieve any desired outcome should be envied, which leads to a Socratic paradox: it is preferable to suffer evil than to commit it (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Finally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Callicles of Athens praises those who disregard conventional justice since he considers true justice to lie in the victory of these individuals.
Menexenus or The Funeral Oration
Menexenus purports to be a funeral oration that Socrates learned from Aspasia, the lover of Pericles (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). It consists of a series of dialogues between Socrates and Menexenus addressing the topic of citizens who died in battle (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogues are divided into two parts: the first being a eulogy, while the second serves as a warning (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the work can be interpreted as a satire that criticizes the patriotic distortion of history.
Meno or On Virtue
In this dialogue, Plato once again raises the topic of virtue and questions whether it can be taught (Imaginary, n.d.). In his concern for the method, the dialogue explores Meno's problem: how can we seek what we know or what we do not know? This question finds an answer in the theory of learning as recollection (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). According to this theory, what is commonly called learning is actually recollection driven; at birth, we already possess all theoretical knowledge, as evidenced by a slave child's ability to solve geometry problems when properly guided. Additionally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue is famous for being one of the first discussions on the difference between knowledge and true belief.
Cratylus or On Property
In a dialogue between Socrates and Cratylus, the topic of names and their meaning is addressed (Imaginary, n.d.). Socrates holds the idea that names have an autonomous meaning that does not depend on human will (Imaginary, n.d.). In other words, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the question of whether names are correct due to convention or their inherent nature is discussed.
Critical Dialogues or Maturity Period (385 - 371 b.C.)
Phaedrus or On Beauty
There are people who believe that this work belongs to the period of youth or transition (Imaginary, n.d.). In this work, Plato reflects on the science of beauty and the science of the good (Imaginary, n.d.). In the first half of the dialogue, competitive seductive speeches are presented (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Socrates laments his first attempt and treats love as an impulse of philosophy. In fact, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue vividly describes platonic love.
Later on, Socrates argues that philosophical knowledge is necessary for effective rhetoric, which can generate resemblances adapted to the audience (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). In this part of the dialogue, Socrates shows a developed interest in genres and species, and eagerly awaits the group of technical studies. Additionally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), he highlights the limited value of writing.
Phaedo or On the Soul
Phaedo, based on the ideas of Imaginary, reflects on the immortality of the soul, forms, recollection, and metempsychosis (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Socrates, the soul is eternal and seeks to free itself from the earthly limitations of the body. Furthermore, the soul has knowledge of the forms and seeks to remember them through recollection. Metempsychosis raises the possibility of the soul's reincarnation in different bodies. In accordance with Imaginary (n.d.), these profound philosophical ideas invite reflection on the essential nature of human beings and their search for truth.
The Symposium or On Love
In this dialogue known as "The Symposium," Plato presents his theories on love (Imaginary, n.d.). The exchange of ideas takes place during a banquet, where the guests discuss Eros while enjoying food and drink (Imaginary, n.d.). Ideally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), each person's eros should evolve from common objects of love toward beauty itself.
Furthermore, Socrates recalls the teachings of Diotima, who argues that all human beings have the impulse to seek immortality (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). This quest can manifest through procreation with ordinary partners, but Diotima considers offspring, along with poetry, scientific discovery, and philosophy, as a more enriching path. Finally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Alcibiades concludes the dialogue by expressing his uninhibited and drunken admiration for and praise of Socrates.
The Republic
In his work "The Republic," Plato examines the elements that, from his point of view, should constitute the State, which involves the exposition of the concepts of justice and injustice (Imaginary, n.d.). In it, according to Imaginary (n.d.), he addresses the importance of morality, justice, the good, the public, and the private.
Socrates, for his part, strives to explain what justice is and why it is preferable to be just (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). His initial concern for justice in the individual leads to a search for justice on a larger scale, represented in an imaginary ideal city. According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), "The Republic" establishes that rulers and guardians cannot have families or private property, women assume the same responsibilities as men, and rulers are philosophers, that is, those who know what is good and just.
Moreover, the dialogue contains two discussions, one with each of Plato's brothers, about the effects of art on moral development (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Correspondingly, Socrates argues that justice in a city or an individual is the condition in which each part fulfills its assigned task; in such a case, there will be no motivation to commit unjust acts, and internal conflicts will be avoided.
Finally, the allegory of the cave is presented (Imaginary, n.d.). Plato argued that the form of the good in the intelligible world occupies the same position as the sun in the visible world (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Therefore, the good is responsible for the being and intelligibility of objects of thought. Lastly, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue ends with a myth about the fate of souls after death.
The Laws
The work known as "The Laws," written by Plato, is an extensive and complex piece consisting of around 345 pages according to Stephanus, but it was still incomplete at the time of the philosopher's death (Meinwald, 2020). This work is a continuation of "The Republic," where Plato attempts to bring the ideals of the State into the practice of the public (Imaginary, n.d.). In other words, according to Meinwald (2020), to address the question of how the best organization of a society would be.
However, unlike his previous focus in "The Republic," in "The Laws" there is less concern for creating an ideal State and a more direct focus on designing a truly viable, albeit imperfect, system of government (Meinwald, 2020). Finally, in accordance with Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), this work seems to have indirectly influenced the great Roman system of jurisdiction.
Polemic Dialogues (370 - 347 b.C.)
Parmenides or On Ideas
Plato appears to question his own theory of forms or ideas (Imaginary, n.d.). Through the dialogue Parmenides, it becomes evident that the previous outlines of forms were inadequate, prompting readers to seek a more precise understanding of these entities (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Thus, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the genre and species approach recommended in The Sophist, The Statesman, and Philebus represents the late version of Plato's theory of forms.
Theaetetus or On Knowledge
In this book, the nature of knowledge is addressed, also questioning the concept of perception and its relation to the process of acquiring knowledge (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogue contains a famous digression on the difference between how philosophers think and how ordinary people think (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Corresponding to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the work ends inconclusively and possibly seeks to highlight the limitations of the methods used by the historical Socrates in relation to this topic.
Sophist or On Being
In this dialogue, although Socrates is not the main protagonist, he also has a presence (Imaginary, n.d.). This is because the leader of the discussion is a stranger from Elea (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). The book reflects on the definition of a sophist (Imaginary, n.d.), which apparently implies the trafficking of falsehoods, illusions, and the denial of being (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). However, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), this becomes perplexing in light of Parmenides' brilliant argument that one cannot think or speak about what is not.
The Statesman or On Sovereignty
In the mentioned dialogue, just like in the previous book, Socrates is not one of the main characters (Imaginary, n.d.). In this dialogue, the question arises regarding the definition of the statesman, who is perceived as a man of science. Imaginary (n.d.) recounts that the philosopher establishes a distinction between speculative sciences and practical sciences, placing the statesman within the realm of speculative sciences.
Philebus or On Pleasure
The discussion about the concept of human happiness and its essence revolves around the conflict between pleasure and wisdom (Imaginary, n.d.). Corresponding to Imaginary (n.d.), this ongoing dispute raises questions about which elements are fundamental to achieving happiness and what its true meaning is in people's lives.
Timaeus or On Nature
This dialogue addresses topics related to the origin of the universe, the structure of matter, and human nature (Imaginary, n.d.). Unlike the divine creation proposed by medieval theologians, Plato presents the Demiurge as the organizer of the cosmos from chaotic elemental matter, imitating the eternal forms (Meinwald, 2020). According to Meinwald (2020), Plato uses the four elements: fire, air, water, and earth, to create various compounds, which he refers to as the body of the universe.
Additionally, in correspondence with Meinwald (2020), this dialogue introduces Plato's famous myth of Atlantis for the first time, although scholars agree that this account was included quite late, despite being dramatically placed on the day following the discussion narrated in the Republic.
Critias or Atlantis
The unfinished dialogue known as Critias, intended to be a continuation of Timaeus, keeps the myth of Atlantis alive (Meinwald, 2020). In this work, the conflict between Athens and Atlantis is recounted in a time predating Greek civilization, implying the assertion of the historical existence of this mysterious land (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Imaginary (n.d.), the main characters in this narrative are Socrates, Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates.
Referencias
Brickhouse, T., & Smith, N. Plato. Iep.utm.edu. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://iep.utm.edu/plato/
Imaginario, A. Todo sobre Platón: biografía, aportaciones y obras del filósofo griego. Cultura Genial. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.culturagenial.com/es/platon/
Meinwald, C. (2020). Plato | Life, Philosophy, & Works. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato#ref281697
Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Platón. Biografías y Vidas. Recuperado 2 May 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/p/platon.htm
