Lucius Annaeus Seneca, a prominent philosopher within the Stoic school, stands out as a key figure in the philosophical landscape, especially in its later development (Guzmán, n.d.). His wisdom consisted of contemplating on goodness, good governance, freedom, dignity, beauty, and death, following a flexible criterion and distancing himself from dogmatic postulates (Narbona, 2020). According to Narbona (2020), like Socrates and Plato, Seneca understood that philosophy serves as a preparation for death.
Biography
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born in the year 4 B.C. in Corduba, now known as Córdoba, Spain (Briceño, 2018). He belonged to a wealthy family in the Bética province of the Roman Empire (Suiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). His mother, Helvia, was noted for her excellent character and education (Dudley, 2021). His older brother, Gallio, had an encounter with the apostle Saint Paul in Achaia in the year 52 A.D., while his younger brother was the father of the poet Lucan (Dudley, 2021). His father, Marcus Annaeus Seneca, was a prominent Roman orator and writer, known for his studies on the history of oratory (Guzman, n.d.). According to Ruiza Fernández & Tamaro (2004), he ensured his son received an education in Rome, including a solid foundation in rhetorical arts. However, Seneca was drawn to philosophy, receiving teachings from various masters who introduced him to the various aspects of Stoic doctrine, then known in Rome.
Later, his health declined, and he went to Egypt where his aunt, residing with her husband Gaius Galerius (Dudley, 2021). During his stay, he studied administration and finance, as well as geography, ethnography, and natural sciences, demonstrating exceptional intelligence and memory (Narbona, 2020). Additionally, he embraced Eastern mystery cults, and there is speculation that he traveled to Greece, a common practice among Roman patricians (Narbona, 2020). Upon returning to Rome in 31 A.D., he embarked on a career in politics and law (Dudley, 2021). Despite his success, his fame displeased Caligula, who nearly condemned him in 39 A.D. (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004; Vogt, 2020). However, with the ascension of Claudius to the throne in 41 A.D., he was exiled to Corsica, accused of adultery (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). According to Dudley (2021), in that unfavorable environment, he continued his studies in natural sciences and philosophy and wrote three treatises titled "Consolations."
Eight years later, he was called back to Rome as the tutor of the young Nero, and when Nero succeeded Claudius in 54 A.D., he became one of his principal advisors (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). Over the next eight years, Seneca and General Sextus Afranius Burrus, also an advisor to the emperor, jointly governed the vast Roman Empire (Narbona, 2020). Narbona (2020) mentions that while Nero led a dissolute life, Seneca and Burrus, both senators, promoted legal and financial reforms, fought corruption, and integrated Armenia into the empire, thereby strengthening its eastern frontier.
In the year 59 A.D., Nero murdered his mother Agrippina, who was Seneca's protector (Narbona, 2020). Instead of condemning the crime, the philosopher justified it in a communication to the Senate, arguing that Agrippina had conspired against the emperor. After Burrus' death in 62 A.D., a smear campaign was unleashed against Seneca, forcing him to resign from his senatorial position. This led him to withdraw from public life and retire to southern Italy, where he wrote his famous moral letters addressed to Lucilius. Finally, in the year 65 A.D., he was accused of participating in the Pisonian conspiracy, with the expectation, according to some sources, of succeeding Nero on the throne. Nero ordered him to commit suicide, a decision Seneca embraced as a definitive liberation from earthly sufferings, in accordance with his own philosophy (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). According to Narbona (2020), his remains were incinerated without any ceremony.
The Vital Stoicism of Seneca
The Stoicism of Lucius Annaeus Seneca represents a practical philosophical doctrine, primarily grounded in questioning human morality, setting aside the logical and physical approaches of traditional Stoicism (Briceño, 2018). For Seneca, virtue cannot be explained through a syllogism, so he advocates for a search for truth through simpler actions (Narbona, 2020). His approach aims at renewing Stoic doctrine through proposals that reinforce and promote the ethical realm (Briceño, 2018). In line with Briceño (2018), his Stoicism is characterized by offering wise advice and reflections linked to morality, emphasizing the importance of taking care of oneself to be of service to others and achieve a good quality of life.
Stoic Perspective on the Soul
The philosopher argues that the two most prominent features of the Stoic account of the soul are as follows: first, the soul is considered corporeal; second, the adult human soul is characterized as rational in the sense that all its operations involve the use of reason (Vogt, 2020). In other words, for the Stoics, knowledge is grounded in action, as there is no distinction between practical and theoretical reason (Guzmán, n.d.). Although Seneca appreciates Plato's imagery, which presents the soul as higher than corporeal things, he is fully committed to the Stoic view that the soul is a body (Vogt, 2020). According to Vogt (2020), only bodies can act on something, causing effects; therefore, it is concluded that the soul must be a body.
The Stoic understanding of the soul also involves fundamental epistemological ideas (Vogt, 2020). Within this framework, individuals harbor in their being impressions, traces, and alterations that constitute manifestations of the soul. Similarly, they acquire the opinions they hold by accepting these impressions; in each case, individuals can assent to an impression, deny it, or withhold judgment. Since this is within the power of each individual, everyone has the power to become wise. Human action originates through assent to practical impressions; such assent triggers the impulse. According to Vogt (2020), if there is no external impediment, the impulse leads to action.
Following the same line of thought, each individual has the power to become virtuous, as assent is under the control of each person, meaning that each individual decides how to act (Vogt, 2020). In short, according to Guzmán (n.d.), theorizing and reflecting on the ethical and moral aspects of daily life is a way to produce knowledge, gain happiness, and virtue. Seneca analyzes these and other topics using a term that has no equivalent in Greek Stoicism: voluntas (Vogt, 2020). For this reason, according to Vogt (2020), Seneca was considered the discoverer of the will, or at least a significant contributor to Augustine of Hippo (354 AD - 430 AD).
Deciphering the Search for Happiness
Seneca considered happiness to be the longing of all individuals, although many were unable to perceive what truly made them happy (Briceño, 2018). In his reflections, he pointed out that those who intensified their efforts to achieve it paradoxically distanced themselves further from its attainment. He advocated for the need for people to be clear about what they were seeking, considering it crucial for undertaking an effective pursuit of happiness. Additionally, he asserted that a genuinely happy life was characterized by the simultaneous pursuit of a healthy soul and a healthy body. In line with this idea, he described the happy person as someone honest, virtuous, with a free, upright, and stable soul, free from fears or afflictions. Also, in correspondence with Briceño (2018), he shared the belief that those who experienced unhappiness led an unfortunate existence and lacked knowledge about regret.
Writings
The philosophical writings of Seneca have been the subject of interpretation in relation to his biography: how could discussions about the healing powers of philosophy not reflect the life of Seneca himself? Despite Seneca's personal style, his writings do not take an autobiographical perspective (Vogt, 2020). In his works, issues related to the moral dilemmas of everyday life are analyzed (Guzmán, n.d.). Similarly, questions are raised about his sense of existence and his Stoic ideal (Briceño, 2018). Finally, there is reflection on how the main problem originated in exercise and the consequences of despotism were presented (Briceño, 2018). Among his most notable works are "Letters to Lucilius," "Moral Letters," "Moral Essays," "Ambrosian Code," and "Natural Questions" (Guzmán, n.d.). According to Guzmán (n.d.), along with "Consolation to Helvia" and "Consolation to Polybius," "Consolation to Marcia" is the oldest known work to date.
The Eternal Influence of Seneca on Contemporary Philosophy
Seneca's stoicism is considered a fundamental precursor to modern concerns about the formation of each individual and the shaping of their lives (Guzmán, n.d.). On the one hand, Seneca's emphasis on previous Stoic philosophy stands out, enriching it with additional details. On the other hand, his work is characterized by the absence of technicalities and the highlighting of the therapeutic properties and practical qualities of philosophy. Similarly, he advocated for equality among men and embraced a lifestyle grounded in moderation, understood as the path to happiness and linked to the rejection of superstition. According to Guzmán (n.d.), this part of his work significantly influenced Renaissance currents and various modern philosophical schools.
References
Briceño, G. (2018). Séneca | Quién fue, biografía, pensamiento, aportaciones, obras, frases. Euston96. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://www.euston96.com/seneca/
Dudley, D. (2021). Seneca | Biography & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 14 July 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca-Roman-philosopher-and-statesman
Guzmán, G. (2021). Séneca: biografía del célebre filósofo estoico. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/seneca
Narbona, R. (2020). Séneca: el camino hacia la virtud. El Cultural. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de https://elcultural.com/seneca-el-camino-hacia-la-virtud
Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Biografia de Séneca [Lucio Anneo Séneca]. Biografiasyvidas.com. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/s/seneca.htm
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