Jean-Jacques Rousseau emerged as one of the most influential thinkers during the Enlightenment in 18th-century Europe, gaining recognition with his first significant philosophical work, "A Discourse on the Sciences and the Arts," which won an essay contest organized by the Academy of Dijon in 1750 (Delaney, n.d.). In this text, he argued that the advancement of the sciences and the arts had led to the corruption of virtue and morality, which brought him fame and recognition, laying the groundwork for his later work, "A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality." Although this second discourse did not win the Academy's prize, it was widely read and further solidified his position as a prominent intellectual figure. In this work, according to Delaney (n.d.), he asserted that humans are intrinsically good by nature but have been corrupted by the historical events that gave rise to contemporary civil society.
Rousseau's praise of nature is a recurring theme in his later writings, notably in his work on the philosophy of education, "Emile," and his principal work on political philosophy, "The Social Contract," both published in 1762 (Delaney, n.d.). These works generated great controversy in France and were immediately banned by the Paris authorities, leading him to flee France and settle in Switzerland, where he continued to face difficulties with the authorities and maintained conflicts with friends. According to Delaney (n.d.), his later years were marked by a sense of paranoia and his constant efforts to justify his life and work, which were notably reflected in his later writings, such as "The Confessions," "Reveries of a Solitary Walker," and "Rousseau: Judge of Jean-Jacques."
Biography
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) was born on June 28, 1712, in Geneva, Switzerland (Cartwright, 2023). His father, a watchmaker, was exiled due to his involvement in a duel, while his mother passed away a few days after his birth. After his mother's death, he was cared for by an aunt and a cousin, and later was temporarily taken in by a clergyman named Lambercier. Except for some teachings about the principles of the Catholic faith, he did not receive formal education. From 1724, he worked as an apprentice to an employee before moving on to work with an engraver. In 1728, according to Cartwright (2023), he left his apprenticeship in Geneva and started earning a living doing odd jobs, which led him to Turin, where he converted to Catholicism.
His fortunes changed in 1731 when he secured a position with Louise Eléonore de Warens, with whom he had first met in 1728 (Cartwright, 2023). During his time with Warens, he worked as an employee and taught music, which allowed him sufficient time to read and make up for the education that had been neglected until then. In 1740, he moved to the house of the Abbot of Mably in Lyon, where he resumed teaching music. In 1742, he moved to Paris, where he continued his interest in music, publishing a pamphlet on musical notation and presenting his musical theories to the Academy of Sciences. According to Cartwright (2023), he secured a position as secretary to the French ambassador in Venice, a post he held between 1742 and 1743, but was dismissed due to misconduct, revealing his difficult character, which became more apparent over time.
Back in Paris, he began to build social connections and obtained a job working for the financier Dupin, which allowed him to reside in the Château de Chenonceau (Cartwright, 2023). Among his associates was Denis Diderot, editor of the Encyclopedia to which Rousseau contributed several essays on music and political economy. According to Cartwright (2023), during a visit to Diderot in 1749, while he was confined in the Château de Vincennes due to accusations of atheism, he experienced what he described as a moment of enlightenment, an event that led him to broader recognition.
The First Discourse, known as "Discourse on the Sciences and Arts," presented an argument contrary to what the Dijon Academy anticipated with its question, "Has the restoration of the sciences and the arts tended to purify morals?" A question that, without a doubt, the Academy hoped would inspire the applicants to extol the benefits of increased culture and enlightenment (Cartwright, 2023). It argued that while the arts and sciences may be good in themselves, they only reach their full splendor in developed societies. However, the main drawback of developed societies is that they are often accompanied by various forms of injustice and inequality. Therefore, it argued that the moral cost of allowing the arts and sciences to thrive in such societies was too high. According to Cartwright (2023), this negative perspective on progress contradicted the majority opinion held by most Enlightenment thinkers.
Subsequently, Rousseau took a lighter turn by writing the opera "Le Devin du Village" in 1752 (Cartwright, 2023). This opera achieved such popularity that the French king offered Rousseau a position at his court, though the writer was unsuccessful in the interview. In any case, according to Cartwright (2023), Rousseau's true passion was philosophy.
He wrote his Second Discourse, known as "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men," in 1755 (Cartwright, 2023). This work is considered a key piece of the Enlightenment and the foundation of modern social critique. Just like in the First Discourse, he wrote this work in response to a question posed by the Dijon Academy, which on this occasion was: "What is the origin of inequality among men, and is it authorized by natural law?" Among Rousseau's responses is the famous phrase: "The man who first had the idea of enclosing a piece of land and saying 'this is mine,' and who found people naive enough to believe him, was the real founder of civil society." According to Cartwright (2023), the essay received second prize as it subverted the purpose of the competition by completely denouncing inequality in society.
Rousseau begins his exposition by describing his vision of humans before the existence of society, even going back to humanoid apes, indirectly suggesting an evolutionary theory (Cartwright, 2023). Furthermore, he suggests that humans in their natural state are free and equal beings, possessing two fundamental instincts: a sense of self-preservation and an innate compassion for others. In his view, the development of society, along with its growing sophistication, leads to a decline in morality. He explains that, given the abuse perpetrated by the rich and powerful, many people would be better off if humanity had not advanced to such sophisticated societies. Consequently, according to Cartwright (2023), Rousseau claimed that civilized humans are unhappy, selfish, and lack freedom.
Madame Warens, who was his former employer, had suffered the consequences of an unsuccessful arranged marriage, which made her a figure who captivated him from the first moment he saw her (Cartwright, 2023). Over time, their relationship evolved into a romantic one; however, they eventually separated when Rousseau progressed in his personal and professional life. Unfortunately, Madame Warens died in poverty, marking a sad end for a woman who had once been so important in the philosopher's life. Later, according to Cartwright (2023), he found another romantic interest in 1756, a neighbor named Sophie d'Houdetot, who inspired him to write the novel "Julie."
From that same year, he chose to live in relative seclusion at Madame d'Épinay's estate, a woman who sympathized with several French-speaking philosophers (Cartwright, 2023). The residence where he lived, which was modest, was aptly called "The Hermitage.” Later, he moved to Montmorency, north of Paris. Once there, according to Cartwright (2023), he devoted himself to writing more frequently, producing the bestselling romantic novel "Julie, ou La Nouvelle Héloïse" (1761), the educational treatise "Émile" (1762), which included influential ideas such as freeing babies from dangerously restrictive clothing and advocating for breastfeeding, and finally, his most celebrated and influential work on political philosophy, "The Social Contract" (1762).
Thérèse Le Levasseur, a humble maid he met in Paris, became his wife in 1768 (Cartwright, 2023). The couple had five children, but Rousseau insisted that all of them be sent to a Parisian orphanage. Levasseur strongly opposed this decision, which was completely understandable, as the infant mortality rate in that orphanage was 70%. Rousseau, who had written a treatise on the best way to care for children in his work "Émile," did not follow any of the advice he himself had presented. According to Cartwright (2023), these and other negative details about Rousseau's personal life were revealed by his fellow philosopher Voltaire, who publicly attacked him as a form of revenge for the literary attacks Rousseau had made against the theater.
In his work "The Social Contract," he offers a solution to the social problems he had previously described in his "Second Discourse" (Cartwright, 2023). Realizing that absolute equality was impossible, he proposed limiting the excesses of inequality. For example, in his ideal society, no person should be forced to sell themselves, and no wealthy person should be able to buy another. For Rousseau, equality was especially important in creating a social contract between citizens, but not between citizens and rulers. In his view, people should come together in a community based on consent, with the aim of ensuring that the society worked for the common good. According to Cartwright (2023), this position differs from that of many other Enlightenment liberal thinkers, who emphasized that people acted solely in their own self-interest.
He recognized the need for a system of laws and a strong government to guide the general will of the people when it might inadvertently stray and to protect property, which he considered an unfortunate creation of society (Cartwright, 2023). According to Rousseau, the general will was a compromise in which individuals sacrificed complete freedom to achieve a restriction on freedom to avoid a situation of total lack of freedom. Whatever the resulting general will, that would be the correct one. He claimed that the sovereign, merely by existing, is always what it should be. Indeed, in correspondence with Cartwright (2023), he had doubts about what was the best type of political system, whether a monarchy or a representative (elitist) democracy, but in either scenario, he believed it was necessary to encourage citizens, through education, to adopt a less selfish approach to community life.
However, it was not his political philosophy but the treatise on education, "Emile," that got him into serious trouble with the French establishment (Cartwright, 2023). Considering his views that religion was a personal matter consisting of an inner light dangerous to Catholicism, the Church influenced the Paris Parliament (a court of justice) to arrest him and ban his book. Rousseau, upon learning of this situation, decided to go to Switzerland. Despite this, according to Cartwright (2023), "Emile" became a bestseller.
Although in the 18th century the discussion about Rousseau focused on his views on faith, other aspects of the treatise, particularly his largely negative views on women and their abilities compared to men, earned the author equally determined criticism in the subsequent centuries (Cartwright, 2023). His forced exile did not help his already high sensitivity; some historians have claimed that he had a persecution complex. In 1766, he moved to England. Cartwright (2023) mentions that, despite a public clash with his fellow philosopher David Hume, Rousseau's reputation in England was high, and King George III of Britain offered him a pension.
During his time abroad, he dedicated his time to considering a more practical application of his thoughts on political philosophy, which led him to write works such as "A Constitutional Project for Corsica" and "Considerations on the Government of Poland" (Cartwright, 2023). Several symptoms of paranoia began to manifest, leading him to return to France incognito in 1770 (Cartwright, 2023; Cranston & Duignan, 2024). His delicate psychological state may explain his concern in his later years to evaluate himself and his life’s work (Cartwright, 2023). During this period, according to Cartwright (2023), he wrote "Confessions" in 1770, "Judge of Rousseau by Jean-Jacques" in 1776, and "Dreams of the Solitary Walker," which remained unfinished.
He spent his last years in Paris before moving north to Ermenonville in May 1778 (Cartwright, 2023). Jean-Jacques Rousseau passed away on July 2, 1778 (Cartwright, 2023). The civilization he so detested and to which he had dedicated his life to combat seemed to have annihilated the one who had exposed its injustice and corruption (Sala, 2021). However, he remained a significant political thinker, and his writings would inspire the revolution that, a decade later, would certify the death of the regime that had attempted to destroy him and his reputation. In a twist of fate, according to Sala (2021), his remains, transferred in 1794 to the crypt of the Pantheon of Illustrious Men in Paris, rest alongside those of his bitter enemy, Voltaire.
The Theory of the Noble Savage
It is understood that politics involves the management of both authority and force, a concept that Rousseau, like other political philosophers of his time, focused on (Torres, 2017). In this context, he assigned great importance to the concept of the "social contract." This social contract represents a hypothetical agreement between citizens and those who hold power, an agreement that enables the existence of States and the stability of their structure. Therefore, according to Torres (2017), for Rousseau, both the existence of the State and politics imply that certain individuals have the ability to compel others to behave in a certain way, supposedly for the good of the majority.
According to Rousseau, private property is a source of violence (Torres, 2017). The existence of private property forces the State to create mechanisms to protect it, and since this protection is one of the fundamental pillars of society, laws are created from the perspective of those who own the most property, that is, the wealthy. In line with Torres (2017), this situation causes the interests of a minority, the wealthiest, to prevail over those of the majority, who own less property.
In Rousseau's view, citizens only gain existence to the extent that they possess private property (Torres, 2017). This dynamic creates systemic violence in society, as it becomes difficult to discern which actions benefit the majority and which do not; moreover, it is not possible to hold the State accountable for all its actions, leading to corruption and injustices. These injustices arise not only from authorities towards civilians but also from the existence of economic and democratic deficiencies, which create a ripple effect fostering violence among citizens. Therefore, according to Torres (2017), for civilization and States to exist, a certain degree of injustice and violence must also exist, due to the imbalance between those who dominate and those who are dominated, who cannot take advantage of the mechanisms of oppression that society offers from birth.
According to this perspective, laws create dynamics of relationships between people that are inherently unjust (Torres, 2017). It concludes that human beings are born free but live in chains. From this viewpoint, people enter the world with a natural predisposition towards morally good behavior; however, society corrupts them to force their participation in its game. According to Torres (2017), it is important to note that the concept of the "noble savage" does not refer to a type of human who necessarily existed at some remote point in history, nor does it precisely define tribal behavior; rather, it is a hypothetical assumption that helps to understand the nature of the State, rather than describe how people lived in the past.
Voltaire, a Frontline Adversary
The philosopher François - Marie Arouet (1694 - 1778) was a prominent critic of Rousseau. However, it is important to consider other prevailing philosophical ideas to gain a more comprehensive view (Farias, 2023). Regarding the concept of the state of nature, Thomas Hobbes reflected that each individual pursues their own interests and that the natural state is a war of all against all. In contrast to Hobbes's view, Rousseau argued that humans are inherently good and compassionate, claiming that it is society that generates inequalities and injustices (Farias, 2023).
In addition to understanding these ideas, it is crucial to note that during the 18th century, only affluent families could afford to have wet nurses in their homes (Farias, 2023). Generally, children were nursed by women who were not their mothers, leading many infants to die shortly after birth due to diseases contracted through breastfeeding. Those who survived developed a strong attachment to their wet nurses, viewing breastfeeding as a job; thus, separation from the nurse was traumatic. According to Farias (2023), Rousseau's philosophical ideas changed this perspective, shifting breastfeeding from a job to a biological function inherent to the mother, thereby reinforcing bonds of love.
However, Rousseau, who contributed to childhood pedagogy, made a notable error (Farias, 2023). At 33, he began a relationship with a seamstress, with whom he had five children. These children were given to an orphanage by the decision of Rousseau and the woman, who, despite her pain, agreed to this decision. After the publication of his work "Emile" or "On Education," Voltaire exposed the fact that Rousseau had sent his own children away, despite being an advocate for breastfeeding and the idealization of motherhood. Rousseau attempted to defend himself and explain his reasons, but the incident was recorded in history. Furthermore, Rousseau did not promote women's autonomy; instead, he posited that their sole function was to nourish their children, while the father was responsible for imparting values and principles. According to Farias (2023), this idealization of motherhood also had negative consequences, relegating women to a secondary role in political life, as their sole duty was to devote themselves to the role of the ideal mother.
References
Cartwright, M. (2023). Jean-Jacques Rousseau. En World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau/
Cranston, M., & Duignan, B. (2024). Jean-Jacques Rousseau. En Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Jacques-RousseauDelaney, J. J. (s. f.). Jean-Jacques Rousseau. En Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Recuperado 12 de agosto de 2024, de https://iep.utm.edu/rousseau/Farias, I. (2023, mayo 18). Principales Ideas de Rousseau. Psicoactiva.com. https://www.psicoactiva.com/blog/ideas-de-rousseau/
Sala, À. (2021, febrero 16). Rousseau: El Filósofo que no Quería ser Ilustrado. National geographic. https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/rousseau-filosofo-que-no-queria-ser-ilustrado_7443Torres, A. (2017, agosto 5). La Teoría del Buen Salvaje de Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/social/teoria-buen-salvaje-jean-jacques-rousseau
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