Charles Louis de Secondat, better known as Montesquieu, was an influential French thinker during the Enlightenment (Montagud Rubio, 2020). His vision of the separation of political powers has left an indelible mark on many modern liberal constitutions. Montesquieu (1689 - 1755) lived in a crucial era: while the English Monarchy evolved towards a constitutional regime to survive, France, following the absolutist reign of Louis XIV, was heading towards what would become the seeds of the French Revolution. In his works, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), he could not help but detail how the events of his time influenced his thought and political vision.
Biography
Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède, known simply as Montesquieu, was born into a noble family near Bordeaux, France, on January 18, 1689 (Cartwright, 2023). He was the son of Jacques de Secondat and Marie-Françoise de Pesnel, and his family belonged to the so-called nobility of the robe (Montagud Rubio, 2020). His mother, who died when he was only seven years old, was the heiress to a significant fortune that brought the barony of La Brède into the Secondat family. He studied at the Catholic school of Juilly and later followed the family tradition by studying law. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), he first studied at the University of Bordeaux and then at the University of Paris, where he came into contact with the intellectuals of the French capital.
After his father's death in 1714, he returned to La Brède and became a counselor in the Bordeaux Parliament. He lived there under the protection of his uncle, who at that time held the title of Baron de Montesquieu. In 1716, he married Jeanne Lartigue, a Protestant who brought him a significant dowry when he was only 26 years old. That same year, upon his uncle's death, he inherited a fortune and the title of Baron de Montesquieu and Président à Mortier in the Bordeaux Parliament, a position he held from 1716 to 1727. At that time, England had already established itself as a solid constitutional monarchy after the Glorious Revolution and had united with Scotland in the Union of 1707, forming the Kingdom of Great Britain. Meanwhile, in France, Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by Louis XV. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), these national transformations had a significant impact on Montesquieu, who mentioned them in several of his writings.
Montesquieu received literary recognition for his work "Lettres Persanes," a satire based on the fictional correspondence between a Persian visitor in Paris, highlighting the absurdities of contemporary European society (Montagud Rubio, 2020). He later published "Considérations sur les Causes de la Grandeur des Romains et Leur Décadence." In 1748, he anonymously published "De l’Esprit des Loix," a text that quickly elevated him to a position of great influence. Although its reception in France was rather limited, both by supporters and detractors of the regime, it had a greater impact in the rest of Europe, especially in Great Britain. In fact, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), it caused quite a stir in the Catholic world, to the point of being banned by the Catholic Church, which included this book in the "Index Librorum Prohibitorum."
Montesquieu was also popular in the New World (Montagud Rubio, 2020). He was highly valued among the enlightened British colonists, who saw him as an example of liberty, though not yet as a reference for the Independence of the Thirteen Colonies. In fact, he was the most cited person on government and political matters in pre-revolutionary British colonial America, cited by the American founders more than any other source, except for the Bible. After the American Revolution, his works continued to strongly influence many of the thinkers and founders of the United States, including James Madison of Virginia, one of the fathers of the United States Constitution. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), Montesquieu's philosophy promoted the idea that a government should be formed where no man need fear another, an aspect that Madison emphasized when drafting the Constitution.
He was admitted to the prestigious Academy of Sciences of Bordeaux (Montagud Rubio, 2020). There, he presented a series of innovative studies on topics as diverse as the adrenal glands, gravity, and echo. Although he initially worked as a magistrate, this profession did not satisfy his intellectual interests, leading him to sell his position. Instead, he decided to embark on a journey across Europe, where he had the opportunity to closely observe the customs and institutions of different countries. During his later years, he devoted his time to traveling and completing several of his works. His travels took him to various countries, including Austria, Hungary, Italy, and England. As he gained a deeper understanding of other cultures, new ideas for explaining and understanding society and politics emerged in his mind. Moreover, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), he sought ways to promote freedom among men.
Despite being a man of great lucidity, enlightened by the Age of Enlightenment, there was a moment when light could only be imagined by him (Montagud Rubio, 2020). This was because he progressively lost his sight until he became completely blind. Montesquieu died on February 10, 1755, in Paris, at the age of 66. According to Montagud Rubio, his body rests in the Church of Saint-Sulpice in the French capital.
Philosophy of History
Montesquieu's philosophy of history is characterized by minimizing the role of individuals and events (Montagud Rubio, 2020). In his work "Considérations sur les Causes de la Grandeur des Romains et de Leur Décadence," he presents his point of view, arguing that each historical event was inspired more by a particular event than by the actions of a specific person or group of people. This principle is exemplified by situations that occurred during the era of classical Rome. Analyzing the transition from the Republic to the Empire, Montesquieu proposes that if Julius Caesar and Pompey had not worked to usurp the government of the Republic, other men would have taken their place. Montagud Rubio (2020) mentions that, according to Montesquieu, the cause of the beginning and end of major historical events was not the ambition of specific characters, in this case, Caesar and Pompey, but the inherent ambition of human beings in general.
Politics and the Separation of Powers
Montesquieu developed and expanded the ideas that John Locke had previously cultivated about the separation of power (Montagud Rubio, 2020). In his work "The Spirit of the Laws," he expressed his deep admiration for English political institutions, arguing that the law was the most important element in a state. With the publication of his "Persian Letters" in 1721, he achieved rapid success and gained renown in French society of the time, which was concerned about the regency of the young Louis XV of France, a king still learning to rule. "The Spirit of the Laws," considered Montesquieu's main work, was originally published in Geneva in 1748 after fourteen years of work (Montagud Rubio, 2020). This work was the subject of harsh criticism, especially from the Jansenists and the Jesuits. Nevertheless, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), Montesquieu did not remain idle and responded to these attacks, publishing in 1750 a defense of this work, which was later censored by Rome in 1751.
Based on this work, Montesquieu is considered to have made two major contributions to Western thought and the scientific study of human societies (Montagud Rubio, 2020). The first is his scientific approach to describing social reality based on an analytical and positive method, which does not limit itself to mere empirical description of facts but attempts to organize the diversity of social reality data by reducing them to a specific number of types or variables. Likewise, he tried to give a sociological response to the diversity of social facts under the idea that there is an order or causality of these facts that can be interpreted rationally. In other words, according to Montagud Rubio (2020), a social phenomenon must have a cause, and this can be addressed without resorting to mystical or supernatural explanations.
However, his most important legacy is his theory of the separation of powers, which has led many to consider him one of the precursors of liberalism, along with figures like John Locke (Montagud Rubio, 2020). Although he was not the first to speak of the separation of powers, it is noteworthy that his theory had the most influence on this idea, making him the leading exponent of this issue. His theses served as a model for the rulers of the 18th and 19th centuries when drafting constitutions. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), his structure was clearly influenced by the British constitutional system, which at that time was relatively new.
The political system was divided into three distinct powers, which acted as checks, balances, and controls over those who exercised such powers (Montagud Rubio, 2020). The intention behind this division was to prevent a single person from accumulating all the functions of the state, as this could lead to an absolutist regime where it would be difficult to counter a malicious ruler. He attributes the legislative power, that is, the power to create laws, to the Parliament; the executive power, that is, the power to exercise political authority, to the government; and the judicial power, that is, the power to apply the laws and determine whether they have been followed, to the courts of justice. According to Montagud Rubio (2020), it is through this separation of powers that it is sought to prevent the Parliament, the Government, and the Courts from committing abuses, which would make people less free in the country that should precisely guarantee them freedoms, protection, rights, and obligations.
Defense of Nature and Liberty
In his contributions, Montesquieu's defense of the relationship between nature and liberty in the formulation of laws stands out (Rodríguez, 2019). According to him, the specific nature of a people, including factors such as climate, the size of the country, the number of inhabitants, religion, and social structures, should be considered when establishing laws. In other words, according to Rodríguez (2019), legislation should adapt to the particularities of each community.
The Republic
The Republic is defined as a type of government in which power is distributed and represents the will of the majority in its democratic form, or is exercised by highly qualified individuals in its aristocratic version (Rodríguez, 2019). Montesquieu considers that the Republic reflects love for the homeland, with this love being its foundation. In this system, according to Rodríguez (2019), all human beings are considered equal, which reduces the possibility of corruption.
The Monarchy
The monarchy, according to Montesquieu, is a form of government in which power rests with a single person, as long as this person submits to the rule of law (Rodríguez, 2019). In this system, the existence of other controlling powers that supervise and prevent the corruption inherent in the concentration of government in the hands of an individual is crucial. According to Rodríguez (2019), honor, as a fundamental principle, guides rulers in the monarchy, ensuring that they remain incorruptible.
Despotism
In the system of government known as despotism, power rests in the hands of a single person. Unlike the monarchy, despotism is not subject to control by third parties (Rodríguez, 2019). Montesquieu, in his influential political theory, harshly criticized French despotism, which he considered synonymous with fear, violence, isolation, and misery. According to Rodríguez (2019), his ideas transformed the intellectuality of the time, and Montesquieu emerged as a fervent defender of liberty and civic happiness.
References
Cartwright, M. (2023). Montesquieu. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Montesquieu/
Montagud Rubio, N. (2020, noviembre 4). Montesquieu: Biografía de Este Filósofo Francés. Psicología y Mente. https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/montesquieu
Rodríguez, P. (2019, mayo 31). Pensamiento de Montesquieu. UnProfesor. https://www.unprofesor.com/ciencias-sociales/pensamiento-de-montesquieu-resumen-3394.html
