The legacy of Baruch Spinoza (1632 - 1677), the renowned Dutch philosopher of the 17th century, transcends the passage of time and continues to exert a significant influence in various fields of knowledge, such as philosophy, ethics, and psychology. Although his ideas were considered controversial in his time, they are still the subject of ongoing study and analysis by prominent scholars, philosophers, and psychologists today.
Biography
Bento Spinoza, also known as Baruch and Benedictus, was born in Amsterdam in the year 1632 into a family of Sephardic Hispanic-Portuguese origin (Fernández & Tamaro, 2004; Nadler, 2020). His father, Miguel, was a prominent merchant, and his mother, Hannah, passed away when he was six years old (Popkin, 2023). He received his education in a Jewish boys' school, where he learned Hebrew and Jewish philosophy. At the age of 18, he began working in the tropical fruit business and formed friendships with young entrepreneurs of different religions. When he was 20, he was accused of heresy along with two other young men who were teaching in the Sabbath school. During this time, as per Popkin (2023), a book challenging the accuracy of the Bible appeared, which influenced Spinoza's ideas.
On July 27, 1656, he was excommunicated by the Sephardic community in Amsterdam. However, he was offered the chance to have the excommunication rescinded and receive a pension if he agreed to attend religious services and remain silent, an offer he declined (Nadler, 2020; Popkin, 2023). After his excommunication, he changed his name from Baruch to Benedictus and maintained some contact with certain members of the Jewish community (Popkin, 2023). Popkin (2023) mentions that while the exact reasons for his excommunication are a matter of debate, it is suggested that it may have been due to his denial of the immortality of the soul or his views on the interpretation of the Bible.
In 1656, he joined the Collegiants, a religious group in Amsterdam, and also became involved with the Quakers (Popkin, 2023). In 1660, Fisher published a book that raised biblical criticisms similar to those of Spinoza. Some believe he lived with them after leaving the Jewish community, while others think he stayed with Francisc van den Enden and taught at his school. During this time, in correspondence with Popkin (2023), he collaborated on the translation of Quaker pamphlets into Hebrew and engaged in theological discussions, asserting that God exists only "philosophically."
In 1661, due to an assassination attempt, he moved from Amsterdam to Rijnsburg, where he lived in solitude, working as a lens grinder and dedicating himself to his philosophy (Popkin, 2023). During this time, he established contacts with intellectuals such as Henry Oldenburg and Robert Boyle. In 1661, he began writing the "Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione," and around 1662, he completed his work in Dutch titled "Korte verhandeling van God, de mensch en deszelfs welstand" while working on his most famous work, the "Ethics." According to Popkin (2023), in 1663, he published "Renati des Cartes Principiorum Philosophiae," an exposition of René Descartes' philosophical principles.
In the mid-1660s, he moved to the outskirts of The Hague, where he established a circle of intellectual acquaintances and gained recognition as a significant intellectual figure (Popkin, 2023). In accordance with Popkin (2023), in 1670, he became known as the author of the "Tractatus Theologico-Politicus," a work that sparked debates throughout Europe.
In this text, he combines biblical criticism, political philosophy, philosophy of religion, and metaphysics (Popkin, 2023). He expresses skepticism about the historical accuracy of the Bible and analyzes its content through scientific study of language, history, and past beliefs. He denies the possibility of miracles, arguing that they all have a rational and scientific explanation. He maintains that the Scriptures are a collection of Hebrew writings by different authors and lack a supernatural dimension. According to Popkin (2023), in its central message, he emphasizes the existence of God, divine causality, and the importance of human interactions.
From a political standpoint, he argues that societies do not originate from supernatural forces but in response to human needs and values (Popkin, 2023). Inspired by Hobbes' idea, he justifies political authority based on the well-being and security of the people, advocating for religious tolerance as long as religions are subordinate to the state and promote obedience. He defends absolute obedience to the sovereign and contends that the people have no right to rebel, even if the sovereign rules poorly. Popkin (2023) mentions that regarding freedom of thought and expression, he advocates for complete freedom as long as it does not interfere with the state's order.
In 1673, he was invited to Utrecht to meet with Louis II, Prince of Condé (Popkin, 2023). However, upon returning to The Hague, he was accused of being in alliance with the enemies of the Netherlands. Although he considered moving to Paris or accepting a chair at the University of Heidelberg, he chose to remain in the Netherlands for security reasons. In 1675, he completed his masterpiece, the "Ethics," but postponed its publication due to potential controversy. After his death in 1677, Popkin (2023) mentions that the "Ethics" was published alongside the unfinished "Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione" and the "Tractatus Politicus."
Ethics and Philosophy of Mind
"Ethics" is a widely recognized work that systematically addresses metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. It posits the existence of God as a substance with infinite attributes (Moreno et al., 2001; Popkin, 2023). This divine substance, which can also be called nature, is the fundamental basis of everything that exists in the universe. Unlike more traditional theistic conceptions, Spinoza defends pantheism, a philosophical perspective that holds that God and the universe are one and the same reality (Moreno et al., 2001; Popkin, 2023). The Center for Philosophical Studies (2023) mentions that, from this perspective, everything that exists is a modification of God, meaning that everything in the universe is a manifestation of the divine substance.
One of the highlights in Spinoza's thought is his conception of mind and body. For him, the mind and body are a single complex entity, which is thought and experienced in two distinct ways (Popkin, 2023). The mind represents the thinking aspect of reality, while the body is the extensive and physical aspect (Popkin, 2023). He postulates a necessary causal relationship between them, arguing that they cannot exist independently (Hübner, 2022). It's not a relationship of dependence or mutual influence but an intrinsic necessity of coexistence. According to Hübner (2022), Spinoza posits that the mind and body mutually affect each other, and any change or action occurring in one of them directly impacts the other.
In addition to his contributions on the existence of God and deterministic causality, he develops the concept of "conatus," which refers to the innate drive of all beings to persevere in their existence and seek happiness. Conatus represents a vital force that impels each individual to maintain a state of existence and seek their well-being. Affections, such as love, joy, hatred, and sadness, are mental states that arise from the interaction between conatus and the external world. These affections reflect how our external experiences affect us and relate to our vital drive. Love and joy occur when we perceive something contributing to our happiness and well-being, while hatred and sadness arise when we perceive threats or obstacles to our happiness.
In Part V of the "Ethics," he explores human freedom and how to attain it (Popkin, 2023). According to him, freedom is achieved by understanding the power of emotions and accepting what cannot be controlled. Additionally, he emphasizes the importance of cultivating knowledge and intellect as paths to true freedom. He argues that the highest knowledge involves a deep intellectual understanding of things as modes and attributes of God. This leads to an intellectual love for God and a rational-mystical experience in which thought and spiritual experience merge. In this state, as described by Popkin (2023), an intimate union between thought and divinity is experienced, leading to a higher perception of reality.
The Influence of Baruch Spinoza on Psychology
Spinoza's philosophy has had a significant impact on the development of modern psychology, particularly in cognitive-behavioral therapy and other forms of reason-based therapy (Guzmán, 2018). His most notable contribution lies in his conceptualization of passions, which has been relevant for understanding and regulating emotions in contemporary psychology (Amil & Fernandez, 2015). He argued that passions were mental states that emerged from the interaction between the body and the environment. These passions could be understood and controlled through reason. According to Amil & Fernandez (2015), this perspective has been embraced in modern psychology and has influenced the development of various therapeutic approaches.
Furthermore, he posited that there are three types of human knowledge (Guzmán, 2018). The first arises from the slavery of passions, where emotions and desires drive our actions without our awareness. In contrast, knowledge derived from reason and an awareness of causes allows us to consciously control our passions and achieve greater freedom. Finally, disinterested intuition resembles the viewpoint of God, as it provides us with a profound understanding of reality (Guzmán, 2018). According to Ricci (2022), this perspective has influenced cognitive-behavioral therapy, which aims to modify dysfunctional thoughts and beliefs to attain emotional balance and psychological well-being.
Spinoza's view of the mind as an integral part of nature has left a lasting mark on the field of psychology (Guzmán, 2018). He argues that the mind and body are inseparable components of the same entity, and he suggests that the mind emerges as an emergent property of the body. This conception has had a significant impact on contemporary psychology by challenging traditional notions of Cartesian dualism. In line with Guzmán (2018), the Spinozist perspective has provided a more holistic and coherent theoretical framework by recognizing the interdependence between the mind and the body, rejecting the idea of a sharp division between the mental and the physical.
Spinoza and Modern Psychology
One of the areas where his thinking has had a significant impact is the theory of self-determination (Ricci, 2022). This theory suggests that motivation is rooted in the satisfaction of the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy bears resemblance to the Spinozist idea of freedom, in which the individual's capacity to act in accordance with their own will and reason is valued, free from oppressive external influences. Likewise, competence shares similarities with Spinoza's conception of power, the drive towards self-realization, and the development of skills and abilities. Finally, according to Ricci (2022), relationships reflect the Spinozist understanding of interdependence and the need for belonging to a community.
The theory of mind in evolutionary psychology has undergone a profound influence thanks to Spinoza's ideas, whose conception of the mind as an intrinsic entity of nature has been fundamental in understanding the development and evolution of the mind (Ricci, 2022). From the Spinozist perspective, the mind is not an exclusive attribute of humans but is understood as another manifestation of the complexity and diversity present in nature. Consequently, as per Ricci (2022), researchers studying the theory of mind have relied on Spinoza's ideas to explore how mental processes have evolved in humans and how they interact with their environment.
In his work "Ethics," he presents arguments that shed light on the nature and role of emotions (Brown & Stenner, 2001). Emotional experiences are influenced by how individuals interpret and react to stimuli from the world. A fundamental aspect is that emotions are not immutable but can be altered through reason. This notion implies that individuals are capable of exerting some control over their emotions through a process of reflection and rational understanding. According to Brown & Stenner (2001), cognitive-behavioral therapy, for example, is based on the premise that thought patterns influence emotions and can be modified through reflection and reasoning.
Lastly, Spinoza was a precursor of the scientific method in philosophy and psychology (Blunden, 2017). His geometric-deductive approach laid the foundation for a more scientific and rigorous understanding of the human mind, influencing how psychologists approach research and theory construction. In line with Blunden (2017), his vision of the mind-body unity has also left a lasting mark on contemporary psychology, promoting the exploration of interactions between biological and psychological processes in understanding human behavior.
Practical Applications of Spinoza's Philosophy in Psychology
Spinoza's philosophy, with its focus on self-awareness and the management of emotions, has practical applications in various fields of psychology, especially in therapy and the promotion of mental well-being. Spinoza's ideas can be integrated into therapeutic approaches such as cognitive-behavioral therapy and other reason-based therapies (Bernard, 1972). In cognitive-behavioral therapy, for example, Spinoza's teachings can assist patients in understanding and controlling their emotions more effectively. By developing greater self-awareness of their thoughts and emotions, individuals can identify and challenge negative and self-destructive thought patterns contributing to their psychological distress.
Furthermore, understanding human nature and the relationship between conatus and emotions can be valuable in promoting mental well-being and preventing mental illnesses (Ricci, 2022). By recognizing the importance of conatus and how it influences emotions, individuals can become more aware of their intrinsic needs and desires. This enables them to make decisions and set goals that align with their true nature, potentially leading to greater personal satisfaction and psychological well-being.
Spinoza's philosophy has left a lasting mark on the history of psychology, and although its influence has often been overlooked, various studies have highlighted the significance of his thought in the development of modern psychology (Bernard, 1972). In particular, Spinoza's profound influence on William James' theory of emotion, recognized as one of the founders of modern psychology, has been emphasized (Bernard, 1972). According to his theory, emotions were not merely passive reactions but also played an active role in how we perceive and respond to the world.
References
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Blunden, A. (2017). Spinoza in the History of Cultural Psychology and Activity Theory. Ethical Politics. Recuperado 14 de junio de 2023, de https://www.ethicalpolitics.org/ablunden/works/spinoza.htm
Brown, S. S., & Stenner, P. (2001). Being Affected: Spinoza and the Psychology of Emotion. International Journal of Group Tensions, 30(1), 81-105. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026658201222
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