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In ancient Western cultures, personality theories played a crucial role in attempting to explain variations among individuals based on their physiological characteristics (Figueroba, n.d.). According to Figueroba (n.d.), these approaches specifically emphasized the importance of the relative proportion of humors, that is, bodily fluids. The Theory of Humors One of the first historical figures to develop the theory of the four humors was the Greek physician Hippocrates of Cos (Politi, 2020). In the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, in ancient Greece where Hippocrates lived, it was of utmost importance to believe that the entirety of the world was composed of various intertwined elements (Torres, n.d.). Therefore, Hippocrates adopted this approach, supporting the idea that the human body consisted of four fundamental substances, also called humors (Torres, n.d.). In the same line of thought, the Greek physician asserted that both health and illness were attributed to the balance or imbalance of these humors in the body (Cercós, 2013). However, according to Cercós (2013), Hippocrates added that there were other causes, such as seasons, winds, the geographical location of the individual, their gender, and even the stage of life they were in, factors that influenced the quantities of the different humors secreted by the body. The bodily fluids, or humors, are linked to the four basic elements: air, fire, earth, and water (de León, 2020). Black bile is associated with the earth element, characterized by coldness and dryness. Individuals with a higher amount of black bile in their bodies tend to experience sadness and melancholy. On the other hand, yellow bile is related to the fire element, exhibiting warmth and dryness properties. Those with a higher amount of yellow bile often have a choleric temperament and are easily irritable. Blood, linked to the air element, is characterized by warmth and moisture. Individuals with more blood in their bodies are described as passionate, changeable, and active. Finally, phlegm is associated with the water element, presenting cold and moist properties. According to de León (2020), those with a higher amount of phlegm tend to appear apathetic and cold. The Theory of Basic Temperaments Based on all the mentioned background, two centuries later, Galen of Pergamum developed his theory of personality (Rodríguez, 2016). During that period, the physician made greater efforts to transform the theory of humors into the theory of basic temperaments, starting from the idea that each of them corresponds to one of the humors of the human body. He ended up applying this view to the primitive psychology of that time (Politi, 2020). In his perspective, the levels of each of the humors present in the human body can explain a person's personality and temperament style. This means that by observing the quantities of these substances, one can understand the style of behavior and the expression of emotions, among other aspects (Torres, n.d.). Similarly, in correspondence with Cercós (2013), he adds that these humors are created from the food given to the body and its innate heat. Blood Temperament Galen, in his statements, describes sanguine individuals as those who stand out for their joy and optimism, constantly seeking the company of others (Politi, 2020). Similarly, they express enthusiasm in their social interactions, orienting their behavior more towards feelings than towards conclusions derived from rational analysis (Torres, n.d.). In addition, these individuals tend to change their minds easily and act with little discipline, as they are guided by the pursuit of immediate pleasure (Politi, 2020). This is reflected in their tendency to frequently leave tasks unfinished (Torres, n.d.). In correspondence with Politi (2020), according to the theory of the four temperaments, their related element is air. Phlegmatic Temperament The phlegmatic temperament is characterized by a inclination towards calm and serene behavior, approaching goals in a perseverant and rational manner (Torres, n.d.). According to Galen's theory, individuals exhibiting this type of temperament place great importance on precision in their mental processes and actions (Torres, n.d.). These individuals rarely experience anger and do not overly express their emotions, which may give the impression of a certain indifference (Politi, 2020). Likewise, they show a tendency towards shyness and avoid taking on leadership roles or standing out in the center of attention (Torres, n.d.). According to Politi (2020), based on the theory of the four temperaments, these individuals are associated with the element of water. Choleric Temperament Individuals known for their choleric temperament are particularly energetic, proactive, and independent (Politi, 2020). They also show a tendency to always engage in activities or undertake projects and actively defend their views and positions in various situations (Torres, n.d.). Similarly, they believe in their own standards and are not afraid to confront others, making them assertive and prominent in leadership roles (Politi, 2020). However, if this temperament is too extreme, it can lead to many conflicts and hostilities (Torres, n.d.). In accordance with Politi (2020), according to the theory of the four temperaments, the element associated with them is fire. Melancholic Temperament Individuals known for their choleric temperament are particularly energetic, proactive, and independent (Politi, 2020). They also show a tendency to always engage in activities or undertake projects and actively defend their views and positions in various situations (Torres, n.d.). Similarly, they believe in their own standards and are not afraid to confront others, making them assertive and prominent in leadership roles (Politi, 2020). However, if this temperament is too extreme, it can lead to many conflicts and hostilities (Torres, n.d.). In accordance with Politi (2020), according to the theory of the four temperaments, the element associated with them is fire. The Four Temperaments Theory and Psychology This theory has been a reference throughout the history of psychology; however, it is currently not considered a valid theory (de León, 2020). On one hand, it was not formulated based on ideas and philosophical positions accepted today, and on the other hand, the description of the different temperaments is very ambiguous (Torres, n.d.). This implies that, although it may be inspiring to see one's personality reflected in one of these temperaments, part of the interest generated by this classification system may be due to the Forer effect. Finally, in Galen's time, psychology as a science did not exist, and the understanding of the functioning of the world and the human body was just beginning. In that context, vague concepts composed of various ideas were used, and although intuitively they may seem related, it cannot be justified that they are interconnected. For example, according to Torres (n.d.), there is no reason for the calm character and a rational way of thinking to be necessarily linked within the phlegmatic temperament. The Theory of Temperaments Today Galen's work has been a prominent reference throughout the centuries in the history of psychology (de León, 2020). Although the theory of the four temperaments lacks scientific validity today, this fact does not prevent it from being a source of inspiration for various contemporary personality theories in the field of modern psychology (Torres, n.d.). In correspondence with Torres (n.d.), numerous personality scholars have used the concept of temperament as a basis for the development of personality tests and measurement tools. References Cercós, A. (2013). LOS CUATRO TEMPERAMENTOS. Zaguan.unizar.es. Recuperado 20 July 2021, a partir de https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/12504/files/TAZ-TFG-2013-898.pdf de León, Á. (2020). Teoría de los cuatro humores. Medium. Recuperado 20 July 2021, a partir de https://medium.com/introducción-a-la-psicolog%C3%ADa-ugr/teor%C3%ADa-de-los-cuatro-humores-bc75b734aa44 Figueroba, A. Los 4 temperamentos: como se explicaba la personalidad en la Antigüedad. Viviendo La Salud. Recuperado 20 July 2021, a partir de https://viviendolasalud.com/cuerpo-y-mente/tipos-temperamento Politi, M. (2020). LOS 4 TEMPERAMENTOS. Es.linkedin.com. Recuperado 23 July 2021, a partir de https://es.linkedin.com/pulse/los-4-temperamentos-marcela-politi Rodríguez, C. (2016). Teoría de los 4 temperamentos: Así definió las personalidades Galeno, ¿cuál eres tú? | Guioteca.com. Guioteca.com | Psicología y Tendencias. Recuperado 20 July 2021, a partir de https://www.guioteca.com/psicologia-y-tendencias/teoria-de-los-4-temperamentos-asi-definio-las-personalidades-galeno-cual-eres-tu/ Torres, A. Los 4 temperamentos del ser humano. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 20 July 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/personalidad/temperamentos-ser-humano

Plato was a highly productive author whose works took the form of dialogues, thus applying the Socratic method (Meinwald, 2020). Plato was the first author to use dialogue to expound his philosophical thoughts, introducing a new cultural element: the confrontation of different points of view and the psychological characterization of the interlocutors (Suiza, Fernández & Tamaro). According to Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004), this marked a new culture in which poetic or oracular expression no longer had a place, but rather the debate to establish understanding, based on the free exchange of ideas and not mere assertions. However, the original order of Plato's Dialogues cannot be determined with certainty (Meinwald, 2020). Nevertheless, the conjecture regarding chronology was based on two types of considerations. First, the perceived evolution of content, and second, the study of specific characteristics of prose style, aided by technology (Meinwald, 2020). According to Imaginario (n.d.), by combining these two observations, scholars arrived at an approximate grouping of widely used works: the period of youth or Socratic dialogues (393 - 389 BC), the transitional period or transitional dialogues (388 - 385 BC), the period of maturity or critical dialogues (385 - 371 BC), and the polemical dialogues (370 - 347 BC). Each of Plato's dialogues was essentially transmitted as he left them (Meinwald, 2020). However, it is important to consider the causal chain connecting modern readers with the Greek authors of Plato's time. To survive until the era of printing, the words of an ancient author had to be copied by hand, and the copies had to be copied, and so on over the centuries, by which time the original would have long disappeared. According to Meinwald (2020), this process of copying inevitably led to some corruption, often reflected in discrepancies among different manuscript traditions. Even if any Platonic text had survived, it would bear no resemblance to what is published in a modern edition of Plato's works, as writing in Plato's time did not use word divisions, punctuation, or the current distinction between uppercase and lowercase letters (Meinwald, 2020). Corresponding to Meinwald (2020), these characteristics are the result of contributions from scholars across many generations and countries, as well as ongoing efforts to correct corruption. Socratic Dialogues or Youth Period (393 - 389 b.C.) Euthyphro or On Holiness The dialogue between Euthyphro and Socrates deals with the nature of the sacred (Imaginary, n.d.). Questions are raised about whether the sacred is what the gods love or whether the gods love the sacred because it possesses certain intrinsic qualities. According to Imaginary (n.d.), despite Socrates' efforts to obtain a precise definition, no clear conclusion is reached on the subject. Apology of Socrates In this dialogue, Socrates presents his arguments during his trial, which ended with his death (Imaginary, n.d.). Socrates explained that the reason for the shame he had caused to many of his contemporaries was due to an oracle of Delphi given to Chaerephon, who claimed that no one was wiser than Socrates (Meinwald, 2020). Furthermore, according to Imaginary (n.d.), Socrates defended himself against the accusations of trying to unravel divine mysteries, arguing that his teachings aligned with a mandate from the god of Delphi. Crito or Duty The dialogue between Crito and Socrates addresses the duty of citizens to obey the laws of the state (Meinwald, 2020). Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.) and Meinwald (2020) mention that, despite facing an unjust death sentence, Socrates chooses to stay and face his execution, arguing that it is necessary to be consistent with the principles and values he has upheld throughout his life. Ion or On Poetry The dialogue between Socrates and Ion discusses the question of whether poetry can be considered a legitimate art (Imaginary, n.d.). Ion defends the idea that poets are professionals, but Socrates questions whether they truly possess profound knowledge (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Additionally, the question of the source of poetic inspiration is raised, with Ion arguing that it comes from the gods (Imaginary, n.d.). However, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates doubts whether poets truly understand the meaning of their own words. Lysis or On Friendship This book presents a dialogue between Socrates, Lysis, Hippothales, Ctesippus, and Menexenus, where Plato reflects on the nature of friendship (Imaginary, n.d.). The author focuses on the reconstruction of previous theories and highlights the importance of analyzing past ideas to develop a deeper understanding of friendship. Imaginary (n.d.) mentions that through this dialogue, Plato seeks to expand our understanding of this fundamental human relationship. Charmides or On Wisdom In a dialogue involving Socrates, Chaerephon, Critias, and Charmides, the topic of wisdom is addressed, and different perspectives on its nature are questioned (Imaginary, n.d.). Furthermore, concepts such as temperance and self-knowledge are explored (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). In this fictitious and early context of the dialogue, Charmides is presented as a young man with great potential. According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue evolves from a story about conduct to an attempt to specify the underlying state that explains it but ends up generating puzzles related to the reflective application of knowledge. Laches or On Courage This dialogue explores the importance of courage as a means to address Plato's true interest: the physical and moral education of children (Imaginary, n.d.). It is a conversation between Socrates, the elders Melesias and Lysimachus, their sons, Aristides and Thucydides, as well as the Athenian generals Nicias and Laches (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogue raises concerns that the sons of prominent men may fail to develop properly, leading to a reflection on the nature of courage (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Again, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), courage tends to be treated as a narrative about behavior or an attempt to define its internal state, but none of the participants demonstrate a proper understanding of these ideas. Protagoras or The Sophists The following theatrical dialogue addresses the topic of virtue or excellence, exposing Plato's views in relation to the sophists, who are criticized by Socrates (Imaginary, n.d.). A notable aspect is that this dialogue reflects Socrates' suggestion that virtue is equivalent to wisdom, as well as analyzing the Socratic position that akrasia, or moral weakness, is impossible (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates indicates that, in cases of akrasia, what occurs is a miscalculation: by considering pleasure as the ultimate good, the total magnitude of pleasure resulting from someone's action is incorrectly underestimated. Euthydemus or The Disputant In this dialogue, Plato presents two conversations: one between Socrates and Crito, and another between Socrates, Euthydemus, and Dionysodorus (Imaginary, n.d.). Plato's goal, according to Imaginary (n.d.), is to refute sophist rhetoric and defend the Socratic method. Transitional Dialogues or Period of Transition (388 - 385 b.C.) Greater Hipias or What is Beauty? The Greater Hippias, also known as the First Hippias, is a work by Plato that addresses the topic of beauty through a dialogue between Socrates and Hippias of Elis (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Imaginary (n.d.), this writing is of great importance for the development of aesthetics as a philosophical discipline. Gorgias or On Rhetoric In this dialogue, Socrates engages in a conversation with Gorgias of Leontini, Polus of Agrigento, and Callicles of Athens (Imaginary, n.d.). During this interaction, Plato employs rhetoric or the art of persuasion to expose the value and principles of this subject, addressing concepts such as beauty and ugliness, justice and injustice, and ultimately, the good (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Socrates argues that the skills of the legislator and the judge aim at the health of the soul, while orators deceive by focusing on the pleasant rather than the good. Additionally, a controversy arises regarding whether those who can achieve any desired outcome should be envied, which leads to a Socratic paradox: it is preferable to suffer evil than to commit it (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Finally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Callicles of Athens praises those who disregard conventional justice since he considers true justice to lie in the victory of these individuals. Menexenus or The Funeral Oration Menexenus purports to be a funeral oration that Socrates learned from Aspasia, the lover of Pericles (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). It consists of a series of dialogues between Socrates and Menexenus addressing the topic of citizens who died in battle (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogues are divided into two parts: the first being a eulogy, while the second serves as a warning (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the work can be interpreted as a satire that criticizes the patriotic distortion of history. Meno or On Virtue In this dialogue, Plato once again raises the topic of virtue and questions whether it can be taught (Imaginary, n.d.). In his concern for the method, the dialogue explores Meno's problem: how can we seek what we know or what we do not know? This question finds an answer in the theory of learning as recollection (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). According to this theory, what is commonly called learning is actually recollection driven; at birth, we already possess all theoretical knowledge, as evidenced by a slave child's ability to solve geometry problems when properly guided. Additionally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue is famous for being one of the first discussions on the difference between knowledge and true belief. Cratylus or On Property In a dialogue between Socrates and Cratylus, the topic of names and their meaning is addressed (Imaginary, n.d.). Socrates holds the idea that names have an autonomous meaning that does not depend on human will (Imaginary, n.d.). In other words, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the question of whether names are correct due to convention or their inherent nature is discussed. Critical Dialogues or Maturity Period (385 - 371 b.C.) Phaedrus or On Beauty There are people who believe that this work belongs to the period of youth or transition (Imaginary, n.d.). In this work, Plato reflects on the science of beauty and the science of the good (Imaginary, n.d.). In the first half of the dialogue, competitive seductive speeches are presented (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Socrates laments his first attempt and treats love as an impulse of philosophy. In fact, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue vividly describes platonic love. Later on, Socrates argues that philosophical knowledge is necessary for effective rhetoric, which can generate resemblances adapted to the audience (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). In this part of the dialogue, Socrates shows a developed interest in genres and species, and eagerly awaits the group of technical studies. Additionally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), he highlights the limited value of writing. Phaedo or On the Soul Phaedo, based on the ideas of Imaginary, reflects on the immortality of the soul, forms, recollection, and metempsychosis (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Socrates, the soul is eternal and seeks to free itself from the earthly limitations of the body. Furthermore, the soul has knowledge of the forms and seeks to remember them through recollection. Metempsychosis raises the possibility of the soul's reincarnation in different bodies. In accordance with Imaginary (n.d.), these profound philosophical ideas invite reflection on the essential nature of human beings and their search for truth. The Symposium or On Love In this dialogue known as "The Symposium," Plato presents his theories on love (Imaginary, n.d.). The exchange of ideas takes place during a banquet, where the guests discuss Eros while enjoying food and drink (Imaginary, n.d.). Ideally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), each person's eros should evolve from common objects of love toward beauty itself. Furthermore, Socrates recalls the teachings of Diotima, who argues that all human beings have the impulse to seek immortality (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). This quest can manifest through procreation with ordinary partners, but Diotima considers offspring, along with poetry, scientific discovery, and philosophy, as a more enriching path. Finally, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), Alcibiades concludes the dialogue by expressing his uninhibited and drunken admiration for and praise of Socrates. The Republic In his work "The Republic," Plato examines the elements that, from his point of view, should constitute the State, which involves the exposition of the concepts of justice and injustice (Imaginary, n.d.). In it, according to Imaginary (n.d.), he addresses the importance of morality, justice, the good, the public, and the private. Socrates, for his part, strives to explain what justice is and why it is preferable to be just (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). His initial concern for justice in the individual leads to a search for justice on a larger scale, represented in an imaginary ideal city. According to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), "The Republic" establishes that rulers and guardians cannot have families or private property, women assume the same responsibilities as men, and rulers are philosophers, that is, those who know what is good and just. Moreover, the dialogue contains two discussions, one with each of Plato's brothers, about the effects of art on moral development (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Correspondingly, Socrates argues that justice in a city or an individual is the condition in which each part fulfills its assigned task; in such a case, there will be no motivation to commit unjust acts, and internal conflicts will be avoided. Finally, the allegory of the cave is presented (Imaginary, n.d.). Plato argued that the form of the good in the intelligible world occupies the same position as the sun in the visible world (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Therefore, the good is responsible for the being and intelligibility of objects of thought. Lastly, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the dialogue ends with a myth about the fate of souls after death. The Laws The work known as "The Laws," written by Plato, is an extensive and complex piece consisting of around 345 pages according to Stephanus, but it was still incomplete at the time of the philosopher's death (Meinwald, 2020). This work is a continuation of "The Republic," where Plato attempts to bring the ideals of the State into the practice of the public (Imaginary, n.d.). In other words, according to Meinwald (2020), to address the question of how the best organization of a society would be. However, unlike his previous focus in "The Republic," in "The Laws" there is less concern for creating an ideal State and a more direct focus on designing a truly viable, albeit imperfect, system of government (Meinwald, 2020). Finally, in accordance with Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), this work seems to have indirectly influenced the great Roman system of jurisdiction. Polemic Dialogues (370 - 347 b.C.) Parmenides or On Ideas Plato appears to question his own theory of forms or ideas (Imaginary, n.d.). Through the dialogue Parmenides, it becomes evident that the previous outlines of forms were inadequate, prompting readers to seek a more precise understanding of these entities (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Thus, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the genre and species approach recommended in The Sophist, The Statesman, and Philebus represents the late version of Plato's theory of forms. Theaetetus or On Knowledge In this book, the nature of knowledge is addressed, also questioning the concept of perception and its relation to the process of acquiring knowledge (Imaginary, n.d.). The dialogue contains a famous digression on the difference between how philosophers think and how ordinary people think (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). Corresponding to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), the work ends inconclusively and possibly seeks to highlight the limitations of the methods used by the historical Socrates in relation to this topic. Sophist or On Being In this dialogue, although Socrates is not the main protagonist, he also has a presence (Imaginary, n.d.). This is because the leader of the discussion is a stranger from Elea (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). The book reflects on the definition of a sophist (Imaginary, n.d.), which apparently implies the trafficking of falsehoods, illusions, and the denial of being (Brickhouse & Smith, n.d.). However, according to Brickhouse & Smith (n.d.), this becomes perplexing in light of Parmenides' brilliant argument that one cannot think or speak about what is not. The Statesman or On Sovereignty In the mentioned dialogue, just like in the previous book, Socrates is not one of the main characters (Imaginary, n.d.). In this dialogue, the question arises regarding the definition of the statesman, who is perceived as a man of science. Imaginary (n.d.) recounts that the philosopher establishes a distinction between speculative sciences and practical sciences, placing the statesman within the realm of speculative sciences. Philebus or On Pleasure The discussion about the concept of human happiness and its essence revolves around the conflict between pleasure and wisdom (Imaginary, n.d.). Corresponding to Imaginary (n.d.), this ongoing dispute raises questions about which elements are fundamental to achieving happiness and what its true meaning is in people's lives. Timaeus or On Nature This dialogue addresses topics related to the origin of the universe, the structure of matter, and human nature (Imaginary, n.d.). Unlike the divine creation proposed by medieval theologians, Plato presents the Demiurge as the organizer of the cosmos from chaotic elemental matter, imitating the eternal forms (Meinwald, 2020). According to Meinwald (2020), Plato uses the four elements: fire, air, water, and earth, to create various compounds, which he refers to as the body of the universe. Additionally, in correspondence with Meinwald (2020), this dialogue introduces Plato's famous myth of Atlantis for the first time, although scholars agree that this account was included quite late, despite being dramatically placed on the day following the discussion narrated in the Republic. Critias or Atlantis The unfinished dialogue known as Critias, intended to be a continuation of Timaeus, keeps the myth of Atlantis alive (Meinwald, 2020). In this work, the conflict between Athens and Atlantis is recounted in a time predating Greek civilization, implying the assertion of the historical existence of this mysterious land (Imaginary, n.d.). According to Imaginary (n.d.), the main characters in this narrative are Socrates, Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates. Referencias Brickhouse, T., & Smith, N. Plato. Iep.utm.edu. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://iep.utm.edu/plato/ Imaginario, A. Todo sobre Platón: biografía, aportaciones y obras del filósofo griego. Cultura Genial. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.culturagenial.com/es/platon/ Meinwald, C. (2020). Plato | Life, Philosophy, & Works. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato#ref281697 Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Platón. Biografías y Vidas. Recuperado 2 May 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/p/platon.htm

Psychology is based on the contributions of various thinkers, writers, and philosophers, such as Plato (Regader n.d.). Although born into a wealthy family, Plato's life was marked by adversity, as he was forced to leave his hometown and face slavery as a result of the ravages of war (Montagud n.d.). Despite his difficulties, in accordance with Regader (n.d.), the influence of this prominent philosopher has endured over time, and his legacy continues to impact the field of psychology. Biography Plato, whose real name was Aristocles of Athens, was born around 428 BC in Athens, Greece (Tovar, 2020). However, some sources suggest that he may have also been born in Aegina, another Greek city. The name "Plato," by which he is known to this day, means "the broad-shouldered one" (Tovar, 2020). According to Imaginario (n.d.), his nickname was given by his gym teacher due to his physical appearance. Coming from a wealthy and powerful family, his father Ariston believed that their wealth was due to their descent from Codrus, the last king of Athens, while his mother Perictone had connections to important figures in Greek history such as Critias and Charmides. From the marriage of Ariston and Perictone, two sons and a daughter were born alongside Plato: Glaucon, Adimantus, and Potone (Montagud, n.d.). After the death of Ariston, his mother remarried, this time to her uncle Pyrilampes, a politician of great importance in Greek history. According to Montagud (n.d.), from the union of Pyrilampes and Perictone, Plato's half-brother Antiphon was born. As a member of the Athenian aristocracy, Plato received an education befitting the upper class, which primarily included gymnastics and poetry (Regader, n.d.). He began his philosophical studies as a disciple of Cratylus, a follower of Heraclitus, but it was with Socrates, whom he met in 407 BC, that he had a crucial encounter and became his teacher. According to Tovar (2020), at that time Socrates was 63 years old, and his teachings extended for approximately 8 years until his death. After Socrates' death sentence, Plato was forced to flee to Megara to avoid unjust judgment (Montagud, n.d.). During his stay there, he associated with Euclides of Megara and the local school of philosophy (Montagud, n.d.). Subsequently, he traveled to Egypt, the region of Cyrene, and then to Italy, where he met Archytas of Tarentum, a polymath who claimed to be a mathematician, statesman, astronomer, and philosopher. However, according to Montagud (n.d.), there are sources that believe that after being in Cyrene, he traveled to Athens. Around 388 BC, he traveled to Sicily, where he met Dion, the brother-in-law of the monarch Dionysius I, who invited him to his palace in Syracuse (Montagud, n.d.). However, for unknown reasons, Plato was expelled and became a slave in Aegina due to the war between Aegina and Athens. Montagud (n.d.) recounts that fortunately, he was rescued by Anniceris, a philosopher from the Cyrenaic school. Plato returned to Athens around 387 BC and founded The Academy, a philosophical school that became a model for later universities (Montagud, n.d.). Plato returned to Athens in 387 BC and founded The Academy, a philosophical school that became a model for later universities (Montagud, n.d.). The Academy, located on the outskirts of Athens and named after Academus, had student residences, a library, classrooms, and specialized seminars (Montagud, n.d.). Aristotle was one of its members for 20 years (Meinwald, 2020). According to Tovar (2020), Plato was immersed in this dynamic for the next twenty years of his life. In 367 BC, Dionysius I of Syracuse died, leaving the throne to his son Dionysius II (Montagud, n.d.). Dionysius decided that Plato should return to Syracuse to become the tutor of the new king. Despite being previously expelled, Plato accepted the offer and left Eudoxus in charge of The Academy (Montagud, n.d.; Tovar, 2020). However, according to Montagud (n.d.), Dionysius II distrusted Plato and Dion, considering them a threat to his throne, so he banished both of them. Therefore, Plato returned to Athens and stayed there until 361 BC, when Dionysius II invited him again (Montagud, n.d.). This time, Plato was cautious and brought some disciples with him, leaving Heraclides Ponticus in charge of The Academy. Dionysius II saw Plato once again as a threat and tried to capture him, but he was rescued by Archytas of Tarentum. From then on, according to Montagud (n.d.), Plato dedicated himself fully to the leadership of The Academy until his death in 348 or 347 BC. Plato's Dialogues Platonic dialogues and the writings of Aristotle are the most important philosophical works in the Western world (Balmore, 2018). The narrative used by Plato allowed for the expression of Socratic thoughts and later, Platonic ideas (Tovar, 2020). In Athens, Plato began to lecture at the Academy Gymnasium and founded the famous Academy, which lasted until the 6th century (Guerri, n.d.). It was there that he started writing the Dialogues, which became the foundation of his philosophical doctrines (Guerri, n.d.). Among the ideas presented in the dialogues, perhaps the most important is Plato's Theory of Ideas or Forms (Balmore, 2018). However, he also addresses topics such as friendship, courage, piety, love, beauty, morality, among others. Dialectic Plato employs the term "dialectic" in his works to refer to a philosophical method based on dialogue and discussion (Meinwald, 2020). This approach, derived from the Greek term "dialegesthai," meaning to converse, reflects the central idea of the philosophical project (Meinwald, 2020). Unlike other forms of philosophical thinking, the dialogic method allows for the debate of different thematic perspectives with the aim of uncovering truth (Tovar, 2020). This technique challenges Plato's idealistic character by thoroughly exploring the raised topics. In line with Tovar (2020), this approach provided philosophy with a dialectical and narrative foundation, avoiding mere exposition of postulates and abstract ideas and allowing their application in reality. Theory of Forms According to Plato, reality is not absolute, and he based a significant part of his contributions on the theory of ideas (Tovar, 2020). Plato referred to forms or ideas as unchanging objects of knowledge (Regader n.d.). Therefore, each object has a corresponding form in language, such as "cat" or "round." For Plato, perceived objects are imperfect copies of these forms since they are constantly changing and depend on the perceiver (Regader n.d.). In other words, words refer to the ideal versions of things, not the things themselves (Tovar, 2020). As stated by Tovar (2020), it was the duty of each individual to strive for the ideal state of things through knowledge. Plato associated the concept of ideas with universal elements representing permanent truths (Montagud n.d.). According to Plato, ideas are abstract and well-defined concepts, such as virtue, beauty, balance, and reality (Montagud n.d.). An example of this is the metaphor of the divided line in The Republic, which is divided into four unequal segments (Regader n.d.). As mentioned by Regader (n.d.), this line is divided into two major segments representing the world of appearances or the sensible world and the world of knowledge or the world of ideas. The lower segment is shorter to indicate its imperfection (Regader n.d.). Plato divides the world of appearances into the world of imagination and the world of belief, where ideas are considered immutable and true (Imaginary, n.d.). Therefore, according to Montagud (n.d.), the world of ideas is eternal and reveals the true essence of reality, unrestricted by time or space. The upper segment is parallelly divided into mathematical thinking and intelligence or knowledge (Imaginary, n.d.). For Plato, the sensible world is that which is perceived through the senses and is subject to change (Imaginary, n.d.). Hence, according to Montagud (n.d.), the sensible world is imperfect, ambiguous, unstable, and bound by the limitations of space and time. For this reason, Plato belittles the value of the sensible world, considering it a mere copy of the idea and therefore falsehood (Imaginary, n.d.). Ideas are then the object of Platonic philosophy, in other words, true knowledge. Imaginary (n.d.) mentions that the opposition between the sensible world and the world of ideas gives rise to the conception of Platonic dualism that permeates his work. Plato's Allegory of the Cave The allegory of the cave is the best metaphor to understand the concept of duality expressed by Plato in his philosophy (Montagud, n.d.). This myth tells the story of men who are chained in a cave, facing shadows that represent different things (Tovar, 2020). Since the shadows are all they know, they take them as real. However, it is only when a man breaks free from the chains and exits the cave that he realizes the ideal state of everything that surrounds him. Therefore, according to Tovar (2020), the philosopher has the responsibility to return and teach others about what lies beyond. The myth distinguishes between a place associated with ideas and another connected to the sensory world (Montagud, n.d.). Life in the cave represents the sensory world, while life outside is related to the world of ideas. For Plato, living in the cave means being in a dark world focused on worldly pleasures. The act of breaking free from the cave represents leaving behind the pursuit of pleasures and embarking on a quest for knowledge, prioritizing reason over impulsivity and pleasure. According to Montagud (n.d.), the further a person is from the cave, the more knowledge they have attained, and the closer they are to the truth. Anamnesis According to Plato, anamnesis is the soul's ability to remember past experiences and knowledge that are forgotten when leaving the human body and entering another (Tovar, 2020). For him, knowledge is based on memories acquired in previous stages and should be awakened in each individual to be easily accessible (Tovar, 2020). In other words, when the soul knows, it does not generate new information but remembers what it already knew in the world of ideas, a phase prior to physical life (Pérez & Merino, 2012). According to Tovar (2020), this form of knowledge would be an approach to the ideal form of each existing element. Psychic Structure Plato developed the theory of the three parts of the soul (Tovar, 2020). According to Regader (n.d.), these parts are: the immortal or rational soul, located in the head; the impulsive or spirited soul, focused on obtaining honor and glory, situated in the chest; and the passionate and appetitive soul, which seeks bodily pleasure, located in the abdomen. Plato was influenced by the Eastern tradition, represented in the myth of the Three Wise Men, who gave the child three boxes to determine his nature: human, royal, or divine (Regader n.d.). According to Regader (n.d.), the contents of the boxes represent the material substance corresponding to each of these natures: myrrh - red gomorresin, gold, and incense. According to Plato, the rational soul was superior and should control the desires of the other two, just as a charioteer controls two horses (Regader n.d.). In other words, it is related to intelligence and wisdom, and according to Plato, it was the philosophers who had developed it the most (Montagud n.d.). The rational soul is associated with intelligence and wisdom, primarily developed by philosophers. The spirited soul is linked to power, will, and ambition, while the appetitive soul is connected to the natural impulse to avoid pain and seek pleasure, needing to be controlled by reason (Montagud n.d.; Regader n.d.). According to Montagud (n.d.), the latter obstructs the pursuit of truth and the essence of things due to its attraction to material goods. Motivation Plato had a negative view of pleasure, as he believed that the body always sought pleasure and avoided pain, which hindered the contemplation of the good (Regader n.d.). In his later writings, Plato mentioned some healthy pleasures, such as the aesthetic pleasure of beauty, but he considered intellectual life to be limited. His conception of motivation was almost Freudian, as he believed that individuals had passionate desires that could be directed towards different parts of the soul, such as pleasure, personal achievements, or philosophical knowledge and virtue (Regader n.d.). According to Regader (n.d.), these impulses could motivate the pursuit of temporary pleasure or philosophical progress towards the world of forms. References Balmore, E. (2018). Resumen de Los Diálogos de Platón. Baneste.blogspot.com. Recuperado 1 May 2021, a partir de https://baneste.blogspot.com/2018/09/resumen-de-los-dialogos-de-platon.html Guerri, M. Biografía de PLATÓN (427-347 a.C.). PsicoActiva.com: Psicología, test y ocio Inteligente. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biografias/platon/ Imaginario, A. Todo sobre Platón: biografía, aportaciones y obras del filósofo griego. Cultura Genial. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.culturagenial.com/es/platon/ Meinwald, C. (2020). Plato | Life, Philosophy, & Works. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato#ref281697 Montagud, N. Platón: biografía de este filósofo de la Antigua Grecia. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 27 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/platon Pérez, J., & Merino, M. (2012). Definición de reminiscencia — Definicion.de. Definición.de. Recuperado 1 May 2021, a partir de https://definicion.de/reminiscencia/ Tovar, P. (2020). Platón: Biografía, Filosofía y Aportes. Lifeder. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/aportaciones-de-platon/ Regader, B. Los impresionantes aportes de Platón a la Psicología. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 7 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/platon-historia-psicologia

Hipocrates' theories are considered some of the earliest approaches to what, almost 20 centuries later, becomes a new science: psychology (Sánchez, 2020). This is one of the youngest sciences, yet it has been developed for centuries, or even millennia (Triglia, n.d.). In fact, some of the big questions it seeks to answer began generating theories over two thousand years ago. An example of this is the theory of the four humors, which is related to the different types of personality that can be found in humans (Triglia, n.d.). According to Sánchez (2020), the history of Hipocrates and the theory of the essential humors dates back almost four centuries before the present time. Biography Hippocrates of Cos was born on the Island of Cos, located in Greece, in the year 460 BC (Figueroba, n.d.). He was a highly respected physician and teacher during his lifetime (Smith, 2018). His father, Heracleides, and paternal grandfather, Hippocrates I, were also physicians, and it is said that he taught the profession to his two sons and son-in-law (Figueroba, n.d.). According to Sanchez (2020), he is known as the father of medicine for being the first person in the West to systematize existing knowledge about health and disease. Hippocrates was also the first to describe the symptoms of many diseases and medical conditions, as well as to systematize criteria for their diagnosis (Figueroba, n.d.). Additionally, he created relevant medical terms, such as convalescence and paroxysm, and medical categorizations, such as the distinction between chronic and acute diseases. However, Figueroba (n.d.) indicates that some of his approaches have been refuted by the scientific method, especially regarding the causes of disorders. Hippocrates traveled to different cities to treat the sick from an early age (Cajal, 2019). It is said that during these travels he learned from other famous physicians of the time and further developed his skills in the field of medicine. During these travels, Hippocrates also began to build a reputation as a physician, which eventually made him known in the field. After these travels, he returned to the island of Cos and founded his first medical school. Later, according to Cajal (2019), he traveled to Larissa in Thessaly, where he established a second medical faculty. The death of Hippocrates is estimated around 377 BC in Larissa, although his work in the field of medicine led him to travel extensively to other cities such as Thrace and Thessaly (Cajal, 2019). Cajal (2019) and Figueroa (n.d.) mention that, although historical sources vary, it is believed that he was between 90 and over 100 years old at the time of his death. The Theory of Essential Humors The Theory of Essential Humors In ancient Greece, during the 5th century BC, theories began to emerge about human behavior and why we do what we do (Triglia, n.d.). In fact, according to Triglia (n.d.), this region was special because knowledge was more freely disseminated than in other places, such as the Persian Empire, where lessons were mainly used for trade and administration. This explains why in just three centuries, ancient Greece became the benchmark for the development of philosophy and science (Triglia, n.d.). However, Greek science, like in other parts of the world, was mixed with ancient religions and myths. According to Triglia (n.d.), this was how the theory of the four humors emerged. The Hippocratic theory, or the theory of essential humors of Hippocrates, was adopted and applied by most physicians until the mid-19th century (Sánchez, 2020). In fact, certain assumptions of the theory are still cited today. This theory states that the human body consists of four basic substances, called humors (Sánchez, 2020). Each person has the four humors, but in different proportions, and one is always more relevant than the others (Cajal, 2019). To maintain health, these humors must maintain a perfect balance, as loss of balance can lead to diseases in both the body and the mind (Sánchez, 2020). Therefore, the way to face illness was to find a way to restore the lost balance. Later authors in Western Europe, who adopted and adapted classical medical philosophy, believed that each of these humors would increase or decrease depending on the individual's diet and level of activity (Amezcua, 2016). Therefore, many treatments consisted of changing the patient's diet to balance the levels of humors by ingesting specific foods (Triglia, n.d.). In some cases, according to Triglia (n.d.), bloodletting was performed so that the patient would lose fluid and thus balance the humors. The theory of the four essential humors asserts that the substances that make up the human body are black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm (Sánchez, 2020). Each of these humors is related to an element of the universe and an atmospheric quality. According to Sánchez (2020), black bile is related to earth and has properties of dryness and coldness; yellow bile is related to fire and has properties of dryness and warmth; blood is related to air and has qualities of moisture and warmth; and finally, phlegm is related to water and has qualities of moisture and coldness. Thus, the theory of the four humors was not isolated from the way reality was understood in ancient Greece but was linked to the belief about the origin of the planet and the cosmos in general (Triglia, n.d.). The ancient Greeks believed that everything in reality was a combination of four different elements, and from there, the theory of the four humors emerged. These four elements manifested in the four humors that, according to Hippocrates, flowed through the human body (Triglia, n.d.). Javier (2014) mentions that it was believed that the four humors followed a cycle according to the seasons and constellations, which reflected the strong influence of astrology on the theory of humors. Humors and Personality Hippocrates and his followers did not consider illness as exclusively physical, but maintained the idea that the mind and body were a single reality (Sanchez, 2020). Therefore, in correspondence with Sanchez (2020), what happened in the psyche had an impact on the body, and vice versa. On the other hand, the Peripatetic school added a new element to the theory of essential humors (Sanchez, 2020). They speculated that the dominance of one of the humors produced a specific temperament in people (Sanchez, 2020). Although this idea is related to personality studies in psychology, Hippocrates' focus was on the relationship between humors and diseases that affect the body (Cajal, 2019). According to Cajal (2019), each humor had a physical representation in the human body that triggered a certain type of personality. Hippocratic Oath From a historical perspective, although it is attributed to Hippocrates, there is no conclusive evidence that he was the author of the Hippocratic Oath (Iglesias, 2007). However, it is one of the most famous medical texts that exists (Figueroba, n.d.). This oath establishes the fundamental principles of medical ethics and guides healthcare professionals in their performance (Figueroba, n.d.). According to Cajal (2019), this document describes the characteristics that a physician should possess, emphasizing the importance of humility and simplicity with patients, equity in service, and discretion in the lives of patients. The Hippocratic Oath was greatly influenced by the work of Pythagoras, especially his contributions to philosophy (Figueroba, n.d.). For this reason, emphasis is placed on solidarity, privacy, justice, and respect for authorities. Figueroba (n.d.) mentions that, according to the magical-religious beliefs and practices of the time, the Hippocratic Oath invites new physicians to swear before various healing gods to meet ethical standards. The Hippocratic Oath connects students and physicians with the community, making them almost members of families (Figueroba, n.d.). Therefore, this oath is considered one of the most important precursors to medical professionalization. Its relevance was such that it was rewritten and adapted to the values and requirements of each era. Today, according to Figueroba (n.d.), the Hippocratic Oath is still used as a public oath taken at the end of medical school, although it is not mandatory. Transforms Medicine into a Discipline Towards the 5th century BC, medicine was not considered a worthy discipline of study as it was associated with superstition, legend, and magic (Cajal, 2019). However, Hippocrates drastically changed the landscape of medicine by approaching it in a more rational way, moving away from legends and starting to investigate the causes of diseases. Hippocrates explained that the diseases that humans suffered from depended more on the environment, habits, and diet. Additionally, according to Cajal (2019), he implemented techniques and methods to treat some diseases, including diagnosis and preventive measures, which initiated the art of medicine and spread to various parts of the world. The set of approaches and descriptions of Hippocratic medicine is currently known as the Hippocratic Corpus, which is a compilation of the most important findings for medicine in the 4th and 5th centuries (Boylan, n.d.). Figueroba (n.d.) mentions that although it is believed that most of the writings in the Hippocratic Corpus are the work of several different writers, this is why sometimes we refer to Hippocratic treatises, Hippocratic works, or the Hippocratic Corpus, and not just Hippocrates. Anatomy Among the various writings saved from this period, some drawings of human anatomy were discovered (Cajal, 2019). At that time, doctors treating war wounds had experience in anatomy (Gill, 2019). Similarly, according to Gill (2019), during the Hellenistic period, there was a great cultural exchange with the Egyptians, who had embalming techniques that involved the removal of organs. However, knowledge of human anatomy was largely based on analogies with animals, inferences of externally visible structures, natural philosophy, and function (Gill, 2019). Despite the limited information available about human anatomy at that time, in correspondence with Cajal (2019), these writings contained the first impressions about this field. Surgery Another great contribution to modern medicine was the possibility of surgery (Cajal, 2019). Hippocrates was one of the first recorded surgeons a long time ago. Despite the technological limits of the time, they used methods that were completely suitable for their time (Cajal, 2019). The Hippocratics not only studied and practiced medicine, but also established the medical and surgical standards of their time (Toledo, 2014). Toledo (2014) explains that the Hippocratics defined surgery as the specialty that required the participation of a physician who sutured wounds, controlled bleeding sites, and detected and treated fractures, dislocations, and empyemas of the thoracic cavity. In summary, in correspondence with Cajal (2019) and Toledo (2014), surgery is an important contribution to modern medicine and the Hippocratics were pioneers in establishing surgical standards of their time, which included the care of wounds, bleeding, fractures, and empyemas of the thoracic cavity. Preventive Medicine This was an important part of the writings of Hippocrates (Cajal, 2019). Hippocrates developed a methodology for the diagnosis of diseases through the observation and description of symptoms and possible complications. He also considered the patient's diet and lifestyle, as he believed they were relevant aspects for the prognosis of diseases. Similarly, according to Cajal (2019), he believed that a person's habits and environment influenced their diseases. Hippocrates’ Ideas in Today’s World The theory of humors was the first attempt to classify different types of temperaments (Sánchez, 2020). Hipocrates, Galen and their followers developed this theory through observation, although they did not rely on any scientific method. With the emergence of formal sciences, the theory was forgotten, although it is considered a historical reference point (Sánchez, 2020). Currently, when doctors prescribe an antibiotic, they are trying to restore balance to the patient's body. In the modern world, there are many professional codes of conduct, such as the American Medical Association Code, the American Bar Association Code, among others (Boylan, n.d.). However, the Hippocratic Oath established the standard of what a professional code is (Boylan, n.d.). After discovering the atrocities committed in the name of medicine during World War II and the growing interest in bioethics in the following decades, taking the oath began to play an increasingly important role in graduation rates. The Hippocratic Oath balances very specific prohibitions, such as not administering poison or having sexual relations with patients, with more general principles, such as caring for the patient's well-being (Boylan, n.d.). Therefore, many current oaths include vows not to change medical practice on grounds of race, nationality, religion, gender, socioeconomic status or sexual orientation (Iglesias, 2007). They also guarantee accountability and patient protection, autonomy and informed consent, and assistance with decision-making. According to Iglesias (2007), all these changes are helping to make this oath a process of constant change to adapt to changing views of medicine and society. References Amezcua, M. (2016). Teoría Hipocrática de los Humores. Fundacionindex.com. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.fundacionindex.com/gomeres/?p=1990 Boylan, M. Hippocrates | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Iep.utm.edu. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://iep.utm.edu/hippocra/ Cajal, A. (2019). Hipócrates: Biografía, Obras y Aportes. Lifeder. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/aportaciones-de-hipocrates/ Figueroba, A. Hipócrates de Cos: biografía y aportaciones del padre de la medicina moderna. Viviendo La Salud. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://viviendolasalud.com/salud-y-remedios/hipocrates-de-cos Gill, N. (2019). The Seasons and Elements of the Four Bodily Humors. ThoughtCo. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://www.thoughtco.com/four-humors-112072 Iglesias, J. (2007). El Juramento de Hipócrates ¿Aún vive?. Medigraphic.com. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/meduni/mu-2007/mu074l.pdf Javier, H. (2014). The Four Humours Theory. Core.ac.uk. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33196432.pdf Sánchez, E. (2020). Hipócrates y la teoría de los humores esenciales en el ser humano. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/hipocrates-y-la-teoria-de-los-humores-esenciales-en-el-ser-humano/ Smith, W. (2018). Hippocrates | Biography, Works, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hippocrates Toledo, L. (2014). Cirujanos en su siglo. De Hipócrates y su Escuela. Elsevier.es. Recuperado 12 April 2021, a partir de https://www.elsevier.es/es-revista-revista-medica-del-hospital-general-325-articulo-cirujanos-su-siglo-de-hipocrates-X0185106314927295 Triglia, A. ​La teoría de los cuatro humores, de Hipócrates. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/personalidad/teoria-cuatro-humores-hipocrates

The famous phrase "I only know that I know nothing," attributed to Socrates, is somewhat problematic, as the translation is not entirely accurate, as pointed out by Ferrero (2020). Although it is well known that Socrates did not write anything, this phrase originated in Plato's dialogue called "Apology of Socrates," which recounts the circumstances of his trial and death sentence, as indicated by Ber (2021). Furthermore, according to Ferrero (2020), this dialogue provides a version of the speech that Socrates gave in his defense before the Athenian courts. It is important to highlight that this phrase has become a symbol of intellectual humility and the constant pursuit of knowledge, even when one is aware of their own ignorance. However, its origin and attribution to Socrates are not completely accurate and are related to the historical context in which he lived. Origin There are various versions about the origin of the famous phrase "I only know that I know nothing" (Ber, 2021). The most well-known one says that a friend of Socrates, Chaerephon, went to the sacred sanctuary of Delphi to ask the god Apollo if there was anyone wiser than Socrates. The oracle replied that there was no one wiser than him. According to Ber (2021), Socrates, who believed he knew nothing, was surprised by the response and decided to investigate the reason behind these words and refute the message of the oracle. To discover the reason for this response, Socrates began an investigation by talking to people he considered wise, such as statesmen, poets, and teachers, using what is now known as the Socratic method: a dialogue technique that uses incisive questions to stimulate critical thinking and extract assumptions (Maden, 2020). According to Ber (2021), Socrates discovered that, in reality, these people were not wise, as they believed they knew a lot, but in reality knew nothing. At the end of his investigation, Socrates understood the profound truth behind the message of the oracle: others believed they knew, but were not aware of their own ignorance, while he was aware of his (Ber, 2021). According to Ber (2021), this is why it was said that Socrates was the wisest, as he did not possess a particular ideology, but was aware of his own limitations. In summary, the expression "I only know that I know nothing" represents humility and awareness of our own ignorance, characteristics that Socrates demonstrated through his investigation and his Socratic method of argumentative dialogue (Maden, 2020). Although Socrates may have been considered the wisest of his time, Ber (2021) mentions that his true wisdom lay in his humility and constant search for truth. Meaning The famous quote from Socrates, "I only know that I know nothing," has a much deeper meaning than what is currently known (Ferrero, 2020). This statement implies that there are different perspectives on society, justice, and courage, and that these concepts can be understood in many ways without reaching a consensus or absolute certainty about any subject (Ferrero, 2020). Socrates used this phrase to emphasize the importance of questioning what seems obvious and basing knowledge on constructive criticism (Torres, n.d.). According to Ferrero (2020), Socrates was not asserting that he knew nothing, but rather that one cannot know something with absolute certainty, even when they believe they are fully confident. On the one hand, "I only know" means possessing great wisdom, while on the other hand, "that I know nothing" represents the silence that may seem simple but is actually fundamental (Romero, 2017). This silence is the source of all knowledge and connects with the spirit. In ancient times, students and groups of philosophers had special places to study in silence. Nowadays, we are surrounded by obligations that prevent people from spending time alone and in silence. Thus, Socrates' message, as mentioned by Romero (2017), emphasizes that wisdom is found within each person and that true change in the world begins internally. In summary, the phrase "I only know that I know nothing" has a profound and diverse connotation. According to Ferrero (2020), this implies that there are different perspectives on society, and that justice and courage can be understood in many ways without reaching an absolute consensus. Socrates, for his part, emphasized the importance of questioning the obvious to strengthen theories and make them correspond to reality through constructive criticism (Torres, n.d.). The silence that represents "not knowing" may seem like a waste of time, but it is actually fundamental to connect with the spirit and gain wisdom (Romero, 2017). In short, Socrates' message, according to Romero (2017), is that wisdom is found within each person, and that true change in the world begins internally. References Ber, D. (2021). ¿Qué significa la frase 'Sólo sé que no sé nada'?. Clarin.com. Recuperado 21 April 2021, a partir de https://www.clarin.com/cultura/-significa-frase-solo-_0_dlFA6n0R-.html Ferrero, J. (2020). "Solo sé que no sé nada" y su imprecisión. Contrainformación. Recuperado 21 April 2021, a partir de https://contrainformacion.es/solo-se-que-no-se-nada-imprecision/ Maden, J. (2020). Socrates and the Socratic Paradox: I Know That I Know Nothing. Philosophybreak.com. Recuperado 21 April 2021, a partir de https://philosophybreak.com/articles/socrates-and-the-socratic-paradox-i-know-that-i-know-nothing/ Romero, J. (2017). El pensamiento que cambia vidas: «Solo sé que nada sé».. Club de Escritura Fuentetaja. Recuperado 21 April 2021, a partir de https://clubdeescritura.com/convocatoria/i-concurso-relato-filosofico/leer/473238/el-pensamiento-que-cambia-vidas-solo-se-que-nada-se/ Torres, A. La teoría epistemológica de Sócrates. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 21 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/teoria-epistemologica-socrates

All individuals ask themselves questions they wish to answer, which can be difficult to achieve (Castillero, s.f.). Often, the answer to these questions is sought in others, when in fact, the solution lies within oneself. In the case of important issues such as ethics, morality, and therapy, it is useful to turn to a method that originated in ancient Greece. Specifically, according to Castillero (s.f.), reference is made to the figure of Socrates, who is recognized for his philosophical approach that consisted of asking questions so that individuals could discover their own answers. What is the Socratic Method? Maieutics is a term of great importance in the field of philosophy (Ucha, 2012). To understand its meaning, the first thing is to know its etymological origin (Pérez & Merino, 2011), which comes from the Greek word "maietikos", which translates as a midwife. In correspondence with Pérez & Merino (2011), Socrates introduced maieutics in philosophy, as it is a technique that helps in the birth of a thinking being, not a baby. The Socratic method is a dialogue technique that seeks to promote the critical thinking of the participants (Ibarra, 2018). This methodology is based on a series of questions that are posed to resolve doubts and conflicts, using tools such as irony (Castillero, n.d.). According to Castillero (n.d.), the questions asked during the Socratic dialogue are usually relatively simple and focus on the particles what, how, and why. The Socratic method is a methodology that suggests that people are capable of reflecting on the problems that afflict them and maturing to mobilize their resources (Castillero, n.d.). In other words, the objective of this technique is not to provide an answer to others' questions but rather to ensure that the person delves into their own psyche to develop their knowledge (Castillero, n.d.). According to Pérez & Merino (2011), the maieutic technique assumes that the truth is hidden in the mind of each person. The use of inductive questions is fundamental in this method (Castillero, n.d.). Questions derived from the subject are answered by another question that arises from the person applying the method, leading the subject's thinking in a specific direction without directly changing their way of thinking (Castillero, n.d.). The Socratic debate stimulates new and critical thinking, which can result in the emergence of new ideas and viewpoints (Ibarra, 2018). In correspondence with Ibarra (2018), it is considered a method of elimination of hypotheses, as the correct answer is found after discarding the invalid ones. In summary, maieutics is a Socratic method that is based on asking inductive questions to stimulate the critical thinking of each participant. The objective is not to provide an answer but to help the person develop their own knowledge and reflect on the problems that afflict them. It is considered a method of elimination of hypotheses and encourages the emergence of new ideas and viewpoints. Phases of the Socratic Method Statement of the Idea The main idea of the debating process is to generate critical thinking through the establishment of a hypothesis that the other participant does not share (Castillero, s.f.; Ibarra, 2018). To achieve this, a series of questions and hypotheses contrary to the original idea are generated, which forces the participant to examine their approach (Ibarra, 2018). During this stage, in accordance with Ibarra (2018), the participant may generate new ideas and perspectives on their original hypothesis, which contributes to the development of critical thinking. Question Generation When a premise is encountered with which the other participant does not agree, a series of hypotheses contrary to the original idea are proposed so that the proponent examines what was mentioned (Ibarra, 2018). During this stage, according to Ibarra (2018), the participant can generate new ideas about their original hypothesis, which contributes to the development of critical thinking. Synthesis To reduce distortions and establish the central points clearly, it is important to synthesize what is taken from the conversation (Aparicio, 2020). By doing so, according to Aparicio (2020), the possibilities of forgetting or disconnecting the responses offered are reduced. Definition The development of ideas between both participants is defined in two ways. On the one hand, according to Socrates' original method, the hypotheses of the first participant must generate contradictions in the interlocutor, and if they succeed, then they have the right in the debate (Ibarra, 2018). On the other hand, according to Ibarra (2018), if the participant does not contradict themselves, the debate continues until a contradiction is generated. Conclution Finally, when the participant contradicts themselves, the other can conclude that the original hypothesis is not valid (Ibarra, 2018). However, the debate does not have a winner or loser (Ibarra, 2018). That is, there should be no opponents or anyone testing the other (Sutton, 2021). According to Ibarra (2018), when the other participant shows that the hypothesis is not valid, this generates a new perspective on their original idea; this is the objective of the debate. Aplication of the Socratic Method in Psychotherapy The ability to ask questions is a skill that many people do not recognize (Sutton, 2021). Asking is an important skill that has been used throughout history in various areas of knowledge, such as education, health, and clinical psychology (Castillero, n.d.). In fact, Castillero (n.d.) mentions that the Socratic method, despite being ancient, continues to be widely used today due to its effectiveness in developing critical thinking and meaningful learning. In clinical psychology, it is common for professionals to give advice or refute ideas, but this may not be beneficial in all cases (Aparicio, 2020). If therapy focuses solely on theories and arguments, it will not be useful for individuals and they may abandon therapy (Aparicio, 2020). Therefore, in correspondence with Aparicio (2020), it is suggested that the Socratic dialogue be used to have a more effective and useful conversation. According to Robinson (2017), the contemporary Socratic method applied in psychotherapy is a cooperative exploration that encourages clients to reconsider their point of view and propose new approaches to problems. Additionally, this method allows clients to express their own ideas and compare them to the goals they want to achieve in therapy (Aparicio, 2020). According to Robinson (2017), Socratic questioning is not only a way to gather information, but also encourages the incorporation and analysis of diverse types of information. Finally, the Socratic method avoids therapists talking too much and helps them ask effective questions that allow clients to process their ideas and compare them with their actions and goals (Aparicio, 2020). In summary, in accordance with Aparicio (2020) and Robinson (2017), the use of the Socratic method in clinical psychology can be a very useful tool to achieve more effective and satisfying therapy. Referencias Aparicio, D. (2020). Diálogo socrático para abordar el “sí, pero...” | Psyciencia. Psyciencia. Recuperado 18 April 2021, a partir de https://www.psyciencia.com/dialogo-socratico-para-abordar-el-si-pero/ Castillero, O. Método Socrático: qué es y cómo se aplica en la psicología. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 18 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/clinica/metodo-socratico Ibarra, M. (2018). Método Socrático: Características, Partes y Ejemplo. Lifeder. Recuperado 18 April 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/metodo-socratico/ Robinson, S. (2017). Socratic Questioning: A Teaching Philosophy for the Student Research Consultation – In the Library with the Lead Pipe. Inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org. Recuperado 20 April 2021, a partir de http://www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2017/socratic-questioning/ Sutton, J. (2021). Socratic Questioning in Psychology: Examples and Techniques. PositivePsychology.com. Recuperado 20 April 2021, a partir de https://positivepsychology.com/socratic-questioning/ Ucha, F. (2012). Definición de Mayéutica. Definición ABC. Recuperado 18 April 2021, a partir de https://www.definicionabc.com/comunicacion/mayeutica.php Pérez, J., & Merino, M. (2011). Definición de mayéutica. Definición.de. Recuperado 18 April 2021, a partir de https://definicion.de/mayeutica/

Philosophy is the foundation of all sciences, regardless of the specialty or subject of study (Castillero, n.d.). Like philosophy, science seeks truth and knowledge, whether in theoretical or practical terms. In fact, according to Castillero (n.d.), scientific theories often rely on concepts and perspectives from philosophical thought. One of the most prominent philosophers in the history of philosophy is Socrates (Castillero, n.d.). His contributions have led to various techniques and ways of thinking about the world and the mind (Castillero, n.d.). Tovar (2019) argues that Socrates' contributions to philosophy are so significant that they have marked a before and after in the discipline. In fact, according to Tovar (2019), the distinction between pre-Socratic and post-Socratic philosophers is an example of how his legacy has influenced the way we understand philosophy to this day. Biography Socrates, recognized as the father of philosophy, was born in Athens in 470 BC (Castillero, n.d.). His father, Sophroniscus, was a sculptor and his mother, Phaenarete, was a midwife (Sánchez, 2020). Although there are doubts about the details of his life, it is known that from childhood he showed great ability in various disciplines, including literature and music. At first, Socrates lived like any other Athenian citizen (Sánchez, 2020). He followed his father's profession for some time and participated in several wars as an infantry soldier, including the Peloponnesian War (Castillero, n.d.). According to Sánchez (2020), the first lessons that Socrates learned were related to his ability to bear the burdens of his condition and his patience. After inheriting a sum of money upon his father's death, Socrates dedicated himself to philosophy (Torres, n.d.). At an early age, he married Xanthippe, a woman famous for her bad temper (Sánchez, 2020). According to Sánchez (2020), there have been several accounts of marital conflicts between the couple, however, there is not enough evidence to confirm that they had such a difficult relationship as is sometimes believed. Despite being ridiculed for his unattractive appearance and austere lifestyle, Socrates became famous for his great intelligence and ability to ask questions (Sánchez, 2020). Socrates did not consider himself wise, but believed that most people believed they knew more than they actually did (Castillero, n.d.). He used irony and dialogue to question the beliefs of his interlocutors and show them the actual level of their knowledge (Castillero, n.d.). Torres (n.d.) notes that Socrates challenged people to defend their ideas to their ultimate consequences, and by asking questions, he exposed the inconsistencies in their arguments. This technique allowed him to gain followers and students, including his brightest pupil, Plato, who restored much of Socratic thought since Socrates never wrote (Sánchez, 2020). The reason why Socrates never wrote was because he believed that if he did so, he would condition the intellectual construction of others, since everyone should have their own ideas. Instead, according to Sánchez (2020), he preferred to talk to people, using his irony and extraordinary ability to see things from a different point of view. Socrates, a Greek philosopher of great influence in his time, aroused suspicion among the authorities due to his growing fame (Torres, n.d.). For this reason, he was accused of being a bad influence on the youth (Sánchez, 2020). Surprisingly, Socrates did not defend himself with his great dialectical ability, as he believed that the laws and decisions of the judges should be obeyed, whether he agreed with them or not. As a result, Socrates was sentenced to death by poisoning with hemlock (Sánchez, 2020). In his last moments, Socrates received a visit from his wife, Xanthippe, who wept for his tragic fate (Sánchez, 2020). However, Socrates questioned her about her sadness and asked if she would feel better if he had died for a just sentence. According to Sánchez (2020), this attitude of acceptance and serenity in the face of death is remembered as one of Socrates' great teachings. The death of Socrates caused great upheaval among his followers and was viewed as a tragedy by many (Sánchez, 2020). Finally, Socrates decided to end his life by drinking hemlock in 399 BC (Torres, n.d.). According to Sánchez (2020), this final episode became one of Socrates' great lessons on the need to follow the laws and accept the consequences of our actions. Socratic Method The most relevant contribution of Socrates to Western philosophy was his technique for arguing a point, known as the Socratic method, which he applied to many things, such as truth and justice (Adhikari, 2019). The Socratic dialogue is based on Socrates' maieutics and is still used in the practice of psychology and various therapies (Castillero, n.d.). According to Adhikari (2019), the Socratic debate is related to basic reasoning, since the ability to discuss a topic involves thoughtful and considered reasoning. Socrates began conversations by praising the wisdom of his interlocutor and presenting himself as ignorant, using Socratic irony, which guides the first part of the dialogue (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). He then posed a question and praised the listener's response, but objected to the responses received with successive questions or counterexamples, which confused the interlocutor and led them to recognize that they knew nothing about the subject. According to Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004), this achievement was essential, as one cannot teach someone who thinks they know everything. Questions are powerful because they challenge preconceived ideas and enable learning (Sobrado, 2018). Discomfort activates the participants' minds and forces them to use many mechanisms in their brain to find the answer (Sobrado, 2018). The first step to attaining wisdom is to realize that one knows nothing, that is, to become aware of one's ignorance (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). According to Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro (2004), after admitting their own ignorance, Socrates led his interlocutors to discover a precise answer to the question posed through the dialogue, in a way so subtle that the truth seemed to emerge as their own discovery. Interest in the Psyche Socrates and his disciple, Plato, conducted research and reflected on the existence of the psyche, which they understood as the soul (Castillero, n.d.). During their studies, Socrates noticed that people often worried about thoughts related to money, fame, or appearance, and neglected their spirit (Adhikari, 2019). He believed that his task, entrusted by the gods, was to remind people of the importance of the soul or spirit. Therefore, according to Adhikari (2019), he argued that wealth does not generate greatness, but being a good citizen leads to wealth for all. In correspondence with Castillero (n.d.), the influence of Socrates and Plato's research on contemporary psychology is evident, as their work helped establish the foundations for reflecting on the contents of the mind, a topic that has been continued by other authors throughout history. Moral and Ethic Socrates, one of the most influential philosophers in history, focused on the field of morality and ethics in his thinking (Castillero, n.d.). His main objective was for philosophy to drive a change in people's mood and critical activities, which in turn would have a broader impact on society (Adhikari, 2019). Tovar (2019) notes that, unlike his predecessors who focused on scientific issues, Socrates addressed the problem of ethics in various human practices, as well as what is right or wrong in certain situations. Socrates believed that man tends to be good and that all vice is a product of ignorance (Castillero, n.d.). Additionally, he believed that goodness, love, kindness, and ethics were based on universal definitions. According to Castillero (n.d.), the philosopher considered that the pursuit of wisdom in virtue was fundamental for the individual to realize their own ignorance. Inductive Method It is considered that this precursor of inductivism believed in the existence of universal definitions, but his method of obtaining universal concepts was different (Pastillero, n.d.). He held that these should be obtained from the simple to the complex, that is, from the particular to the general. Furthermore, this thinker believed that people obtained knowledge of truth through their experience, rather than starting from assumed knowledge and taking it for granted. According to Castillero (n.d.), this approach is considered of great importance in the creation of the scientific method, which is characterized by hypothetical - deductive reasoning. Precursor of Constructivism Constructivism is an educational movement that focuses on the generation of knowledge through the creation of shared knowledge, which in turn, depends on the individual's ability to comprehend the material being learned (Castillero, n.d.). In other words, as stated by Adsuara (2020), knowledge of reality is constructed by the individual themselves using the available mechanisms. Therefore, each person's individual experience is of great importance in the learning process. On the other hand, Socrates believed that the goal of education was to teach students how to think instead of what to think (Castillero, n.d.). This implies that the teacher should help the student to generate their own knowledge. In line with this idea, Castillero (n.d.) states that constructivism seeks to enable the student to generate their own learning process through the use of various aids offered by the environment. Use of Irony and Confrontation Socratic irony is a method used by Socrates in his teachings, which seeks to understand a person's true essence through an authentic pursuit of knowledge (Adhikari, 2019; Tovar, 2019). This process involves making the subject perceive the contradictions in their discourse and refuting their biased arguments so that they realize their true level of knowledge (Castillero, n.d.). In other words, it encourages the person to assume a position of ignorance so that others can make statements that can then be questioned (Adhikari, 2019). In this way, according to Adhikari (2019), Socrates could claim that his opponents were well-informed and pretend not to know the answer to the question posed. Confrontation is a strategy used in some psychological therapies to make the individual aware of the contradictions between their speech and behavior. According to Castillero (n.d.), this technique seeks to expose the patient to these contradictions to promote self-awareness. In other words, it aims to make the patient realize the gap between what they say and what they do, which can lead to a greater understanding of oneself and greater coherence in their actions. It is important to maintain coherence in the translation. Referencias Adhikari, S. (2019). Top 12 Contributions of Socrates - Ancient History Lists. Ancient History Lists. Recuperado 15 April 2021, a partir de https://www.ancienthistorylists.com/people/top-contributions-socrates/ Adsuara, G. (2020). Qué es el CONSTRUCTIVISMO en Psicología: Origen y Características. psicologia-online.com. Recuperado 15 April 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/que-es-el-constructivismo-en-psicologia-origen-y-caracteristicas-4876.html Castillero, O. Los aportes de Sócrates el griego a la Psicología. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 13 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/aportes-socrates-psicologia Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Biografia de Sócrates. Biografiasyvidas.com. Recuperado 14 April 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/s/socrates.htm Sánchez, E. (2020). 5 grandes lecciones de vida de Sócrates - La Mente es Maravillosa. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 14 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/5-grandes-lecciones-de-vida-de-socrates/ Sánchez, E. (2020). Sócrates, biografía del padre de la filosofía. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 14 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/socrates-biografia-del-padre-de-la-filosofia/ Sobrado, J. (2018). Sócrates y la mayéutica: cómo hacer preguntas clave para facilitar el aprendizaje. Learning Legendario. Recuperado 15 April 2021, a partir de https://learninglegendario.com/socrates-y-la-mayeutica/ Torres, A. La teoría epistemológica de Sócrates. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 14 April 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/teoria-epistemologica-socrates Tovar, P. (2019). 7 Aportaciones de Sócrates a la Filosofía. Lifeder. Recuperado 14 April 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/aportaciones-de-socrates/

Every science has its origin and history, and it is important to know it in order to better understand the subject (Pradas, 2018). Since the beginning of its history, humans have proposed various hypotheses and theories about psychological functions and mental disorders (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, there have always been different figures whose basic mission is to understand the soul of people (Martínez, 2019). According to Martínez (2019), priests, monks, magicians, witches, santeros, philosophers, and physicians provide answers and remedies for people's psychological world. Psychology is an exciting field and the history of psychology provides an opportunity to understand how it has grown and developed (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Despite the predominance of the scientific method, very ancient concepts still have some influence today, such as the attribution of illness to the effects of spirits or the separation between body and soul (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, according to Cherry (2020), contemporary psychology is interested in a wide variety of topics related to human behavior and mental processes, from the neuronal level to the cultural level. Ancient Age Although psychology did not emerge independently until the late 19th century, its earliest history dates back to the time of the ancient Greeks (Cherry, 2020). The term psychology comes from the Greek words psyche and logos, which can be translated as the study of the soul (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), during this period, mental disorders were believed to be the result of possession by spirits and demons, and treatments consisted of spells and incantations, which were believed to have healing effects. Between the 5th and 4th centuries BC, philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, Hippocrates, and Aristotle made contributions that were of great importance for the development of psychology (Grandío, n.d.; Guerri, n.d.). Socrates laid the foundations of the scientific method; Plato envisioned the body as the vehicle of the soul, responsible for human behavior; Hippocrates examined physical and mental illnesses through the inductive method and attributed them to imbalances in bodily fluids or humors (Grandío, n.d.), and Aristotle, according to Guerri (n.d.), mentioned that the mind or psyche is the first act of all things, since it is what allows people to feel and perceive. Middle Ages In the Middle Ages, European thought was dominated by Christianity, which caused a clear setback in scientific progress (Grandío, n.d.). Although Greco-Roman theories about humors remained valid, according to Grandío (n.d.), they were combined once again with magical and diabolical beliefs. For instance, it was thought that madness was caused by the commission of sins and could be cured through prayer and exorcism. On the other hand, in the Arab world, medicine and psychology continued to develop during the Middle Ages (Grandío, n.d.). As Grandío (n.d.) explains, mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, dementia, or hallucinations were described, humanitarian treatments were applied to those who suffered, and basic psychological processes began to be studied. There were also related developments in Asian psychology (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), Hindu philosophy analyzed the concept of the self, while in China, tests were applied in the field of education, and the first known psychological experiment was carried out, which involved drawing a circle with one hand and a square with the other to evaluate resistance to distraction. Renaissance and Enlightenment Between the 16th and 18th centuries, in the Western world, the demonological conception of mental illness coexisted with humanism (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), the restoration of the influence of classical Greek and Roman writers plays a fundamental role in this second variant, which links psychological disorders to physical rather than moral changes. During this historical period, the term psychology became popular (Grandío, n.d.). In this sense, the works of philosophers Marko Marulić, Rudolph Goclenius, and Christian Wolff are especially important (Grandío, n.d.). Along the same lines, Immanuel Kant, an author very concerned with human thought and the way people perceive reality, argues that there is a priori knowledge of the reality of things, and then the mind adds its own order to sensations, meaning that humans do not have a passive mind. Likewise, it is worth mentioning the influence of philosophers such as René Descartes, who contributes to the dualism that separates the body from the soul; Baruch Spinoza, who questions it, or John Locke, who asserts that the mind depends on environmental influences (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, the physician Thomas Willis attributes mental disorders to changes in the nervous system (Grandío, n.d.). In short, according to Guerri (n.d.), at this point, psychology begins to be interested in subjectivity, that is, the self behind everything. At the end of the 18th century, Franz Joseph Gall and Franz Mesmer are also influential; the former introduces phrenology, according to which mental functions depend on the size of specific areas of the brain, while mesmerism attributes physical and psychological changes to the effect of magnetic energy on bodily fluids (Grandío, n.d.). However, according to Cherry (2020), the proposals of the influential authors mentioned above are still debated by psychologists today. On the other hand, psychiatry was preceded by alienism, represented mainly by Philippe Pinel and his disciple Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), Pinel advocates for the ethical treatment of mental illnesses and diagnostic classification, while Esquirol promotes the use of statistical data to analyze the effectiveness of psychological interventions. 19th Century In the 19th century, knowledge about the anatomy of the brain allowed for the understanding of mental processes as a result of biology, thanks to the contributions of Gustav Theodor Fechner, Pierre Paul Broca, and Carl Wernicke in the field of neuropsychology, according to Grandío (n.d.). The work of German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz was also noteworthy, as he measured the speed of nerve impulses and demonstrated that senses can deceive people (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Baker & Sperry (2021) argue that an important implication of his work is that there is a physical and psychological reality, and the two are not identical. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution influenced various fields, including psychology, by allowing a better understanding of how humans and other animals adapt, and how natural selection shapes behavior and cognitive abilities (Grandío, n.d.). However, according to Grandío (n.d.), the theory was also misinterpreted and misused by eugenicists to justify the superiority of certain races and the inferiority of others, promoting inhumane practices such as forced sterilization and birth control. In the mid-19th century, German physiologist Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to study reaction time (Cherry, 2020). In his book "Principles of Physiological Psychology," published in 1873, Wundt outlines many of the key connections between physiology and the study of human thought and behavior, according to Cherry (2020). In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Leipzig, Germany, where knowledge from different scientific fields was combined. This is why Wundt is often referred to as the father of scientific psychology (Grandío, n.d.). This event is also considered the official beginning of psychology as an independent and unique scientific discipline (Cherry, 2020). According to the International University of Valencia (2016), it is a very important milestone in the history of psychology because since then, significant advances have been made in the study of psychological processes and behavior through experimentation. However, some experts argue that Gustav Theodor Fechner had paved the way for the emergence of this discipline by testing equations to quantify the relationship between a physical stimulus and related sensations. His work is called psychophysics and serves as a basis for the new science of psychology (Baker & Sperry, 2021). But, according to Guerri (n.d.), what was initially considered very important was discovered not to be so, and these formulas were not used. Granville Stanley Hall founded the first psychology laboratory in the United States in 1883, the first American psychology journal in 1887, and the American Psychological Association in 1892 (Grandío, n.d.; Baker & Sperry, 2021). In 1909, he invited Sigmund Freud to Clark University (Baker & Sperry, 2021). Under the influence of the theory of evolution, Hall was interested in the process of human adaptation and development, using different surveys and questionnaires to study children and writing about early childhood development and education. However, according to Baker & Sperry (2021), at that time, graduate training in psychology was restricted for women and almost non-existent for African Americans. Regarding experimental psychology, Pradas (2018) highlights that it presented a revolutionary declaration: the study of human thought requires experimentation and scientific foundations. According to Pradas (2018), two diametrically opposed principles in psychology emerged: on one hand, it is said that the human mind can only be studied through subjective analysis and projection of thought, and on the other hand, it is mentioned that psychology must be a purely experimental and empirical science. Psychiatry has been a discipline in constant evolution throughout its history (Grandío, n.d.). The contribution of Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum and Emil Kraepelin has been fundamental for the development of this medical area. Kahlbaum was one of the first to study mental illnesses as separate and defined clinical entities. His work allowed for a greater understanding of pathologies such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and his contribution laid the foundations for the development of a modern and scientific psychiatry. On the other hand, Grandío (n.d.) mentions that Kraepelin was one of the first to use clinical and evolutionary criteria to classify mental disorders, allowing for greater precision in the diagnosis and treatment of these disorders. Functionalism and structuralism were two influential schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Grandío, n.d.). Structuralism, founded by Edward Titchener, emphasized the content of thought, i.e., feelings and thoughts (Cherry, 2020; Baker & Sperry, 2021). Titchener excluded people with intellectual disabilities, children, and animals from his study, making it limited and subjective. On the other hand, William James' functionalism studied mental functions and used direct observation to study human thought and behavior (Cherry, 2020; Baker & Sperry, 2021). Additionally, according to Baker and Sperry (2021), functionalists were interested in the activity and behavior of the mind, and their approach paved the way for the study of various approaches, including animal and comparative psychology. Simultaneously, Jean-Martin Charcot and Joseph Breuer studied hypnosis and hysteria, developing research and ideas that inspired Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century (Grandío, n.d.). In Russia, Ivan Pavlov and Vladimir Bekhterev developed hand reflexology. According to Grandío (n.d.), these contributions established the basis of psychoanalysis and behaviorism, two directions that dominated psychology in the first half of the 20th century. 20th Century The psychoanalysis proposed by Sigmund Freud is one of the main theoretical currents in modern psychology, emphasizing the importance of the unconscious in adult personality and behavior (Grandío, n.d.; Cherry, 2020). According to Grandío (n.d.), Freud developed psychoanalysis through his clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other illnesses, popularizing verbal therapy and the concept of the unconscious from a psychoanalytic perspective. Behaviorism, developed by John Watson and Burrhus F. Skinner, focuses on observable behaviors, rejecting both emphasis on conscious and unconscious mind (Cherry, 2020). In accordance with Baker & Sperry (2021), behaviorism considers open and observable behavior as an appropriate subject for psychology and seeks to derive laws of learning that help predict and control behavior. Gestalt psychology, developed in Germany, believes that studying the entirety of any experience is richer than studying individual aspects, in contrast to Wundt's reductionist approach (Baker & Sperry, 2021). According to Martínez (2019), gestalt psychologists suggest that the brain often processes information simultaneously rather than sequentially, recommending a holistic study of phenomena, with the whole being greater than the sum of its parts. In the history of psychology, behaviorism has been a dominant current for several decades (Baker & Sperry, 2021). However, in the 1960s, psychologists began to recognize that behaviorism was insufficient to fully explain human behavior due to its lack of consideration for mental processes (Baker & Sperry, 2021). As a result, cognitive psychology emerged, which focused on the study of basic and complex psychological processes and gained popularity in the same decade (Grandío, n.d.). According to Grandío (n.d.), authors such as George Kelly, Albert Ellis, and Aaron Beck are included in cognitivism. Cognitive psychology, which emphasizes both observable behaviors and mental processes, began to replace psychoanalysis and behaviorism (Cherry, 2020). Since then, it has continued to be a dominant current in psychology, and researchers have continued to study aspects such as perception, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and language. According to Cherry (2020), the introduction of brain imaging tools such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography (PET) has significantly improved researchers' ability to study the internal functioning of the human brain. While the first half of the 20th century was marked by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, the second half saw the emergence of a new school of thought known as humanistic psychology (Cherry, 2020). This theoretical orientation is represented by Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, among others (Grandío, n.d.). In accordance with Grandío (n.d.), the emergence of humanism is a response to the predominance of psychoanalysis and behaviorism and advocates the idea that individuals are free, unique, inclined towards self-realization, and have the right to dignity. In the same line of thought, corresponding to Grandío (s.f.), in the 20th century there was a significant increase in knowledge about biology, medicine, and pharmacology, which promoted the dominance of these sciences over psychology and influenced the development of interdisciplinary fields such as psychobiology, neuropsychology, and psychopharmacology. The Last Decades Psychology has continued to evolve since the 1960s, introducing new ideas and perspectives (Cherry, 2020). The development of the science of mental processes and behavior has been marked by the growth of neuroscience, ongoing dialogue with cognitive sciences, and behavioral economics (Grandío, n.d.). Similarly, although still present in Argentina and France, schools related to psychoanalysis have lost much of their existence and hegemony. According to Grandío (n.d.), this leads to the prevalence of a psychological conception in which neuroscience and cognitive-behavioral psychology exchange tools and knowledge in research and intervention. However, the criticisms that behaviorism makes against the mentalistic and subjectivist notions of psychology remain valid (Grandío, n.d.). Correspondingly, according to Grandío (n.d.), this means that cognitivism and psychoanalysis, as well as all points of view belonging to humanistic psychology, are severely criticized, among other things, for working based on highly abstract and poorly defined concepts, under which completely different and unrelated meanings can be placed. Still, behaviorism remains a minority philosophy in psychology, while cognitivism enjoys very good health (Grandío, n.d.). Of course, according to Grandío (n.d.), the vast majority of research in experimental cognitive psychology is based on methodological behaviorism, which leads to some contradictions: on the one hand, psychological phenomena are considered as elements located inside the human brain, and on the other hand, this element is studied by creating stimuli and measuring objective responses. Finally, despite the differences in the different coexisting methods and approaches, they all have the same goal: to understand the function and complexity of human thought (Martínez, 2019). This is why most psychologists today do not identify with a single school of thought (Cherry, 2020). Instead, they focus on a specific area or perspective and rely on ideas from different theoretical backgrounds. According to Cherry (2020), this eclectic approach provides new ideas and theories that will continue to shape psychology in the years to come. References Baker, D., & Sperry, H. (2021). History of Psychology. Noba. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://nobaproject.com/modules/history-of-psychology Cherry, K. (2020). The Origins of Psychology: History Through the Years. Verywell Mind. Recuperado 30 March 2021, a partir de https://www.verywellmind.com/a-brief-history-of-psychology-through-the-years-2795245 Grandío, A. ​Historia de la Psicología: autores y teorías principales. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/historia-de-la-psicologia Guerri, M. Breve Historia de la Psicología. PsicoActiva.com: Psicología, test y ocio Inteligente. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/biblioteca-de-psicologia/historia-de-la-psicologia/ Martínez, L. (2019). Historia de la Psicología. Psiko blog. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psiko.es/blog/2019/09/25/historia-de-la-psicologia/ Pradas, C. (2018). El origen de la psicología: resumen y autores. psicologia-online.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/el-origen-de-la-psicologia-resumen-y-autores-4248.html Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2016). Psicología científica: ¿qué es y cómo ha evolucionado?. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 29 March 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/co/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/psicologia-cientifica-que-es-y-como-ha-evolucionado

Galen of Pergamon (129 AD - 210 AD), recognized for a curiosity that evolved into valuable research, stands as the most prominent representative in the field of health in antiquity, succeeding Hippocrates of Cos (Sánchez, 2020). According to Sánchez (2020), in a historical period where diagnostic tools were notably scarce and knowledge in biology was limited, Galen emerged as a crucial figure by articulating ideas and principles that not only endured over time but also exerted significant influence on medical practice for several centuries. In line with Romero et al. (2011), the Galenic encyclopedia is constructed upon four closely integrated elements, derived from the Hippocratic tradition. The physician from Cos constitutes the first and most powerful pillar of his doctrine, playing a hegemonic role. The second component that distinguishes his work is the influence of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, whose theories and methodological concepts play a crucial role in Galen's scientific process. The third component is the creative systematization of the Greek medical tradition, and the fourth and final component emerges as the enduring and decisive foundation for the construction of Western medical thought up to the present day. Biography Claudius Galen was born in the summer of the year 130 A.D. in Pergamon (Sánchez, 2020). At that time, the city was located on the western edge of Asia Minor, a city that was then under Greek rule and is now part of Turkey (Villacís, 2020). This distinguished physician came from a wealthy and aristocratic family (Sánchez, 2020). Aelius Nicon, his father, was a renowned architect, landowner, and builder, also well-versed in mathematics, astronomy, and writing (Campohermoso et al., 2016). According to Sánchez (2020), little is known about his mother, except that she had a difficult temperament. Galen's parents made efforts to ensure he received a solid education (Sánchez, 2020). Specifically, Galen's father had a significant influence on him; it is said that one night he dreamt of Asclepius, or Aesculapius, the god of medicine, who indicated that his son should study medicine (Campohermoso et al., 2016). For some reason, his father encouraged him to pursue this profession (Sánchez, 2020). In line with Campohermoso et al. (2016), Galen began his studies at the Aesculapion of Pergamon, a distinguished healing temple dedicated to both religious activity and the science of healing, where prominent individuals in various scientific disciplines gathered, and Galen acquired knowledge of anatomical and physiological concepts. At the age of sixteen, Galen of Pergamon decided to focus his efforts on the study of medicine (Campohermoso et al., 2016). After three years of preparation in his hometown, he moved to Smyrna to study with Pelops in semiotics, delving into the investigation of Hippocratic texts. During this period, he wrote a three-book thesis titled "On the Movements of the Chest and Lungs," marking the beginning of a series of studies to describe the crossing of muscle fibers during respiratory movements (Romero et al., 2011). In accordance with Romero et al. (2011), his interest in understanding the mechanisms regulating biological phenomena and their interconnections would be the foundation for the gradual development of his teaching system. In the year 152, he moved to Corinth and Alexandria, following Numitianus to continue his preparation, especially in anatomy, surgery, and therapeutics (Romero et al., 2011). Likewise, he gained knowledge of the techniques introduced by Herophilus and Erasistratus of dissection and vivisection in animals, allowing him to establish analogies with human morphology (Romero et al., 2011). Five years later, after the death of his father, he returned to his hometown (Sánchez, 2020). In that place, he served as a physician at the gladiator school for four years, excelling in his work with meticulousness and skill (Campohermoso et al., 2016). According to Campohermoso et al. (2016), this experience provided him with extensive knowledge in the art of healing, addressing both wound treatment and care for bones, joints, and muscles. In the year 162, he moved to Rome with the purpose of disseminating the anatomical and physiological studies conducted up to that point (Romero et al., 2011). During this period, he wrote notable morphological works such as "On the Use of Parts" and "On Anatomical Procedures," which held a prominent place in medical thought and were fundamental in the anatomy and surgery lectures of medieval and Renaissance universities (Romero et al., 2011). In that place, his reputation grew to the point of becoming the personal physician of several emperors, including Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, and Septimius Severus (Sánchez, 2020). According to Sánchez (2020), during his stay, he played the role of a researcher, with an estimated 400 works written, of which only 150 have survived. In the city of Rome, dissections on human beings were prohibited, leading Galen to conduct his research on animals, whether alive or dead (Sánchez, 2020). Despite these limitations, he managed to understand the basic function of the kidneys and spinal cord. Unfortunately, much of his work was lost in a fire in the year 171. Before his death, the eminent physician returned to his hometown, Pergamon, where he passed away around the year 216. According to Sánchez (2020), without Galen's contribution, neither medicine nor pharmaceutical chemistry would have advanced so rapidly in knowledge. Exploring the Psyche in the Tripartition of the Soul He adopts a Platonic perspective in central areas of his thinking; this influence is especially evident in his moral psychology, where he assumes the Platonic division of the soul into rational and non-rational parts, with the latter further divided into the spirited and the desiderative (Singer, 2016). The fundamental distinction between the rational and non-rational soul is crucial for an adequate conceptualization of the soul and its internal functioning, particularly for a correct approach to ethics. However, the Platonic tripartition is also fundamental to Galen's body physiology. The three parts correspond and are located in the brain, heart, and liver, respectively. According to Singer (2016), these organs play proportional roles in Galen's physiology, being responsible for rational thought, perception, and voluntary and involuntary movements necessary for the maintenance of life, blood production, and nutrition. According to this scheme, the psychic is properly attributed to a single part of the tripartite soul, specifically the one residing in the brain; and indeed, Galen uses "psyche" and its cognates in a narrower sense to refer to the brain and its functions (Singer, 2016). However, it is important to note that the Greek term "psyche" encompasses more than simply the mind or soul; it is the vital principle that explains life in the body, as well as the locus of thought and moral activity. For this reason, according to Singer (2016), all vital activities, in this sense, can be defined as psychic, as the "psyche" is responsible for both mental and physical function. The Intricate Link between Body and Mind Galen held the belief that bodily states had the ability to induce mental states, and, conversely, mental disorders could impact the health of the body (Pearson, 2016). His strongest argument regarding a theory of the body-mind identity is found in his analysis of the relationship between the rational soul and the physical characteristics of the brain (Singer, 2016). While he does not establish as close, at least proven, a connection between the heart and liver and their psychological functions as he does with the brain, the fact that the thumoeides, which encompasses emotional reactions, is located in the heart, illustrates examples from both everyday experience and traditional thinking. Thus, according to Singer (2016), Galen makes efforts to identify physical correlates for various psychological or emotional states, linking them to specific actions and states of the heart or blood; however, the relevant texts do not clarify the precise nature of the causal relationship. The Four Temperaments Galen embraced the Hippocratic theory of the four humors, which states that the balance of humors represents eucrasia (Campohermoso et al., 2016). For Galen, humors are fluid bodies that flow and interact in an orderly manner, maintaining the balance of vital functions (Villacís, 2018). Thus, illness was considered an imbalance between these fluids, diagnosed through pulse, urine, and organ inflammations, requiring prior knowledge of anatomy (Campohermoso et al., 2016). According to this theory, blood is formed in the liver; yellow bile in the gallbladder; black bile in the spleen; and phlegm in the pituitary gland. According to Campohermoso et al. (2016), these humors correspond to the elements and seasons of the year: blood to air, prevailing in spring; yellow bile to fire, prevailing in summer; black bile or melancholy to earth, prevailing in autumn; and phlegm to water, prevailing in winter. Based on this, he proposed the existence of four temperaments based on the humor theory (Sánchez, 2020). The melancholic temperament characterizes those with a predominance of black bile. These individuals have a melancholic temperament, being sad, anxious, restless, reflective, and artistically sensitive (Sánchez, 2020). Similarly, they enjoy silence and solitude, often forgetting their surroundings and easily becoming distracted (Amezcua, 2016). The choleric temperament represents those with a large amount of yellow bile, leading to a passionate, perseverant, and highly vital temperament (Sánchez, 2020). They are ambitious, individualistic, and demanding of themselves (Amezcua, 2016). Additionally, according to Cajal (2019), individuals with these traits tend to be impulsive and react according to the environment: when convenient, they are communicative and good-natured; on the other hand, in an unfavorable environment, they become irritable and angry. In the case of the sanguine temperament, the humor of blood predominates (Sánchez, 2020). Characteristics of the sanguine temperament include self-confidence, joy, optimism, expressiveness, and sociability (Sánchez, 2020). They are good-humored, enthusiastic individuals who exude confidence (Amezcua, 2016). Their traits are highly sociable, which could make this person somewhat despotic in some of their actions (Cajal, 2019). Lastly, the phlegmatic temperament characterizes those with a predominance of phlegm in their body (Sánchez, 2020). Phlegmatic individuals are reflective, fair, incorruptible, calm, not very committed, and somewhat lazy (Sánchez, 2020). Similarly, in correspondence with Amezcua (2016), they love the good life and dislike work. Parkinson´s Disease The last great classical master, Galen of Pergamon, clearly mentioned the postural changes and tremor associated with Parkinson's Disease (García, 2004). This philosopher described this disease as a type of paralysis that hinders walking straight (Campohermoso et al., 2016). He further adds that the tremor is an unfortunate condition, as movement becomes unstable and uncontrolled (Campohermoso et al., 2016). Galen goes even further by distinguishing between voluntary action tremor and resting tremor (García, 2004). Finally, in accordance with García (2004), after Galen, there are no known references to Parkinson's Disease for almost 15 centuries. References Amezcua, M. (2016). Teoría Hipocrática de los Humores. Fundacionindex.com. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.fundacionindex.com/gomeres/?p=1990 Cajal, A. (2019). Hipócrates: Biografía, Obras y Aportes. Lifeder. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/aportaciones-de-hipocrates/ Campohermoso, O. et al. (2016). Galeno de pérgamo "príncipe de los médicos. Scielo.org.bo. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de http://www.scielo.org.bo/scielo.php?pid=S1652-67762016000200014&script=sci_arttext García, P. (2004). Prehistoria de la enfermedad de Parkinson. Sid.usal.es. Recuperado 21 July 2021, a partir de https://sid.usal.es/idocs/F8/ART13699/prehistoria_enfermedad_parkinson.pdf Pearson, A. (2016). Galen: An Ancient Roman Forefather of Modern Psychology. Words from the Wind. Recuperado 19 July 2021, a partir de https://philosophadam.wordpress.com/2016/10/10/galen-an-ancient-roman-forefather-of-modern-psychology/ Romero, A. et al. (2011). Galeno de Pérgamo: Pionero en la historia de la ciencia que introduce los fundamentos científicos de la medicina. Medigraphic.com. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/abc/bc-2011/bc114g.pdf Sánchez, E. (2020). Hipócrates y la teoría de los humores esenciales en el ser humano. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 8 April 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/hipocrates-y-la-teoria-de-los-humores-esenciales-en-el-ser-humano/ Sánchez, E. (2020). Galeno, biografía de un médico brillante. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/galeno-biografia-de-un-medico-brillante/ Singer, P. (2016). Galen. Plato.stanford.edu. Recuperado 19 July 2021, a partir de https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galen/ Villacís, C. (2018). Galeno de Pérgamo: una de las cumbres del pensamiento griego. academiaplay. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de https://academiaplay.es/historia-medicina-galeno/

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, a prominent philosopher within the Stoic school, stands out as a key figure in the philosophical landscape, especially in its later development (Guzmán, n.d.). His wisdom consisted of contemplating on goodness, good governance, freedom, dignity, beauty, and death, following a flexible criterion and distancing himself from dogmatic postulates (Narbona, 2020). According to Narbona (2020), like Socrates and Plato, Seneca understood that philosophy serves as a preparation for death. Biography Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born in the year 4 B.C. in Corduba, now known as Córdoba, Spain (Briceño, 2018). He belonged to a wealthy family in the Bética province of the Roman Empire (Suiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). His mother, Helvia, was noted for her excellent character and education (Dudley, 2021). His older brother, Gallio, had an encounter with the apostle Saint Paul in Achaia in the year 52 A.D., while his younger brother was the father of the poet Lucan (Dudley, 2021). His father, Marcus Annaeus Seneca, was a prominent Roman orator and writer, known for his studies on the history of oratory (Guzman, n.d.). According to Ruiza Fernández & Tamaro (2004), he ensured his son received an education in Rome, including a solid foundation in rhetorical arts. However, Seneca was drawn to philosophy, receiving teachings from various masters who introduced him to the various aspects of Stoic doctrine, then known in Rome. Later, his health declined, and he went to Egypt where his aunt, residing with her husband Gaius Galerius (Dudley, 2021). During his stay, he studied administration and finance, as well as geography, ethnography, and natural sciences, demonstrating exceptional intelligence and memory (Narbona, 2020). Additionally, he embraced Eastern mystery cults, and there is speculation that he traveled to Greece, a common practice among Roman patricians (Narbona, 2020). Upon returning to Rome in 31 A.D., he embarked on a career in politics and law (Dudley, 2021). Despite his success, his fame displeased Caligula, who nearly condemned him in 39 A.D. (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004; Vogt, 2020). However, with the ascension of Claudius to the throne in 41 A.D., he was exiled to Corsica, accused of adultery (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). According to Dudley (2021), in that unfavorable environment, he continued his studies in natural sciences and philosophy and wrote three treatises titled "Consolations." Eight years later, he was called back to Rome as the tutor of the young Nero, and when Nero succeeded Claudius in 54 A.D., he became one of his principal advisors (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). Over the next eight years, Seneca and General Sextus Afranius Burrus, also an advisor to the emperor, jointly governed the vast Roman Empire (Narbona, 2020). Narbona (2020) mentions that while Nero led a dissolute life, Seneca and Burrus, both senators, promoted legal and financial reforms, fought corruption, and integrated Armenia into the empire, thereby strengthening its eastern frontier. In the year 59 A.D., Nero murdered his mother Agrippina, who was Seneca's protector (Narbona, 2020). Instead of condemning the crime, the philosopher justified it in a communication to the Senate, arguing that Agrippina had conspired against the emperor. After Burrus' death in 62 A.D., a smear campaign was unleashed against Seneca, forcing him to resign from his senatorial position. This led him to withdraw from public life and retire to southern Italy, where he wrote his famous moral letters addressed to Lucilius. Finally, in the year 65 A.D., he was accused of participating in the Pisonian conspiracy, with the expectation, according to some sources, of succeeding Nero on the throne. Nero ordered him to commit suicide, a decision Seneca embraced as a definitive liberation from earthly sufferings, in accordance with his own philosophy (Ruiza, Fernández & Tamaro, 2004). According to Narbona (2020), his remains were incinerated without any ceremony. The Vital Stoicism of Seneca The Stoicism of Lucius Annaeus Seneca represents a practical philosophical doctrine, primarily grounded in questioning human morality, setting aside the logical and physical approaches of traditional Stoicism (Briceño, 2018). For Seneca, virtue cannot be explained through a syllogism, so he advocates for a search for truth through simpler actions (Narbona, 2020). His approach aims at renewing Stoic doctrine through proposals that reinforce and promote the ethical realm (Briceño, 2018). In line with Briceño (2018), his Stoicism is characterized by offering wise advice and reflections linked to morality, emphasizing the importance of taking care of oneself to be of service to others and achieve a good quality of life. Stoic Perspective on the Soul The philosopher argues that the two most prominent features of the Stoic account of the soul are as follows: first, the soul is considered corporeal; second, the adult human soul is characterized as rational in the sense that all its operations involve the use of reason (Vogt, 2020). In other words, for the Stoics, knowledge is grounded in action, as there is no distinction between practical and theoretical reason (Guzmán, n.d.). Although Seneca appreciates Plato's imagery, which presents the soul as higher than corporeal things, he is fully committed to the Stoic view that the soul is a body (Vogt, 2020). According to Vogt (2020), only bodies can act on something, causing effects; therefore, it is concluded that the soul must be a body. The Stoic understanding of the soul also involves fundamental epistemological ideas (Vogt, 2020). Within this framework, individuals harbor in their being impressions, traces, and alterations that constitute manifestations of the soul. Similarly, they acquire the opinions they hold by accepting these impressions; in each case, individuals can assent to an impression, deny it, or withhold judgment. Since this is within the power of each individual, everyone has the power to become wise. Human action originates through assent to practical impressions; such assent triggers the impulse. According to Vogt (2020), if there is no external impediment, the impulse leads to action. Following the same line of thought, each individual has the power to become virtuous, as assent is under the control of each person, meaning that each individual decides how to act (Vogt, 2020). In short, according to Guzmán (n.d.), theorizing and reflecting on the ethical and moral aspects of daily life is a way to produce knowledge, gain happiness, and virtue. Seneca analyzes these and other topics using a term that has no equivalent in Greek Stoicism: voluntas (Vogt, 2020). For this reason, according to Vogt (2020), Seneca was considered the discoverer of the will, or at least a significant contributor to Augustine of Hippo (354 AD - 430 AD). Deciphering the Search for Happiness Seneca considered happiness to be the longing of all individuals, although many were unable to perceive what truly made them happy (Briceño, 2018). In his reflections, he pointed out that those who intensified their efforts to achieve it paradoxically distanced themselves further from its attainment. He advocated for the need for people to be clear about what they were seeking, considering it crucial for undertaking an effective pursuit of happiness. Additionally, he asserted that a genuinely happy life was characterized by the simultaneous pursuit of a healthy soul and a healthy body. In line with this idea, he described the happy person as someone honest, virtuous, with a free, upright, and stable soul, free from fears or afflictions. Also, in correspondence with Briceño (2018), he shared the belief that those who experienced unhappiness led an unfortunate existence and lacked knowledge about regret. Writings The philosophical writings of Seneca have been the subject of interpretation in relation to his biography: how could discussions about the healing powers of philosophy not reflect the life of Seneca himself? Despite Seneca's personal style, his writings do not take an autobiographical perspective (Vogt, 2020). In his works, issues related to the moral dilemmas of everyday life are analyzed (Guzmán, n.d.). Similarly, questions are raised about his sense of existence and his Stoic ideal (Briceño, 2018). Finally, there is reflection on how the main problem originated in exercise and the consequences of despotism were presented (Briceño, 2018). Among his most notable works are "Letters to Lucilius," "Moral Letters," "Moral Essays," "Ambrosian Code," and "Natural Questions" (Guzmán, n.d.). According to Guzmán (n.d.), along with "Consolation to Helvia" and "Consolation to Polybius," "Consolation to Marcia" is the oldest known work to date. The Eternal Influence of Seneca on Contemporary Philosophy Seneca's stoicism is considered a fundamental precursor to modern concerns about the formation of each individual and the shaping of their lives (Guzmán, n.d.). On the one hand, Seneca's emphasis on previous Stoic philosophy stands out, enriching it with additional details. On the other hand, his work is characterized by the absence of technicalities and the highlighting of the therapeutic properties and practical qualities of philosophy. Similarly, he advocated for equality among men and embraced a lifestyle grounded in moderation, understood as the path to happiness and linked to the rejection of superstition. According to Guzmán (n.d.), this part of his work significantly influenced Renaissance currents and various modern philosophical schools. References Briceño, G. (2018). Séneca | Quién fue, biografía, pensamiento, aportaciones, obras, frases. Euston96. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://www.euston96.com/seneca/ Dudley, D. (2021). Seneca | Biography & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recuperado 14 July 2021, a partir de https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lucius-Annaeus-Seneca-Roman-philosopher-and-statesman Guzmán, G. (2021). Séneca: biografía del célebre filósofo estoico. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/biografias/seneca Narbona, R. (2020). Séneca: el camino hacia la virtud. El Cultural. Recuperado 18 July 2021, a partir de https://elcultural.com/seneca-el-camino-hacia-la-virtud Ruiza, M., Fernández, T., & Tamaro, E. (2004). Biografia de Séneca [Lucio Anneo Séneca]. Biografiasyvidas.com. Recuperado 13 July 2021, a partir de https://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/s/seneca.htm

Behaviorism, also known as the psychology of behavior, is a learning theory based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning (Vergara, 2018). Behavior psychologists, including John Watson and Burrhus Skinner, sought to find objective principles for controlling the behavior of living organisms (García, n.d.). In correspondence with García (n.d.), their desire was to be absolutely faithful to the strictest rules of the scientific method. According to this line of thinking, behavior can be systematically and observably examined, regardless of internal mental states (Vergara, 2018). This idea was originally proposed by Watson in "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (García, n.d.). To fulfill this need, behavior psychologists arrived at their final result, which is to eliminate man from the stage of psychology, reducing him to a mere phenomenon, object of literary descriptions. In other words, according to Vergara (2018), only observable behavior should be taken into account, since perceptions, emotions, and moods are too subjective. In the same vein, humans can be compared to machines, since in both systems, behavior can be predicted and controlled by laws (García, n.d.). Therefore, the behavior psychologist reduces human behavior to the same regulatory laws that govern animal behavior (García, n.d.). That is, there is no fundamental or qualitative difference between human behavior and animal behavior (Vergara, 2018). As a consequence, according to Vergara (2018), rats and pigeons have become the main source of data for behaviorists, since their environment is easy to control. Furthermore, the behavioral stance minimizes or dispenses with the differentiating role of individual inheritance, arguing that for practical reasons, all men are equally endowed at birth and have great flexibility to be molded throughout life, depending on the type of conditioning to which they are exposed (García, n.d.). These psychologists believe that responses to environmental stimuli shape actions (Vergara, 2018). In short, behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior, almost excluding innate or inherited factors. Therefore, according to Vergara (2018), this branch of thought is considered a learning-centered approach. Similarly, rigorous behaviorists believe that anyone can be trained to perform any task, regardless of their genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts (Vergara, 2018). Based on these premises, in correspondence with García (n.d.), behavior no longer belongs to the human being, and he is simply a biological organism that reacts to the stimulating situation according to laws that do not depend on him. Additionally, behaviorism argues that if a particular behavior is reinforced, it tends to be repeated; however, if it is not reinforced, it is not learned (García, n.d.). That is, no matter how complicated it may be, all behaviors can be reduced to simple stimulus-response associations (Vergara, 2018). If this is true, then anyone who rewards or punishes another can get that person to do what they want (García, n.d.). In conformity with García (n.d.), this principle also effectively explains human behavior, which is inexorably achieved from infancy through the conditioning of parents, educators, society, among others, based on reward or punishment. Lastly, from this perspective, humans are receptive beings, passive entities that simply respond to environmental stimuli (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2017). Therefore, people cannot be free, since behavior is entirely a function of conditioning (García, n.d.). According to García (n.d.), being unfree, they cannot be held responsible for their actions towards others, that is, they cannot assume responsibility for their own actions. References García, L. Sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe. Recuperado 25 March 2021, a partir de https://sisbib.unmsm.edu.pe/bvrevistas/investigacion_psicologia/v02_n2/pdf/a06v2n2.pdf Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2017). Psicología conductista clásica: principios esenciales. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 25 March 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/es/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/psicologia-conductista-clasica-principios-esenciales Vergara, C. (2018). ¿En qué consiste el enfoque conductual en psicología?. Actualidad en Psicología. Recuperado 25 March 2021, a partir de https://www.actualidadenpsicologia.com/enfoque-conductual-psicologia/

Currently, psychology includes a variety of theoretical orientations, comparable, in some ways, to political ideologies or religious beliefs, since they assume a code of conduct that guides professional practice in different ways (Torres, n.d.). Behavioral psychology, also known as behavioral psychology, is one of the most common orientations among psychologists, although today, according to Torres (n.d.), it is more commonly practiced in its cognitive-behavioral aspect. What is Behaviorism? Behaviorism is a current of psychology that has accompanied and profoundly shaped the history of psychology, science and Western social history of the twentieth century, which focuses on the study of the common laws that determine the behavior of humans and animals (France, 2020). In short, according to France (2020), behaviorism in psychology can be defined as a psychological trend that studies observable behavior in an experimental, objective and natural way. In its origins, behaviorism ignores the intrapsychic to focus on observable behavior, i.e., it prioritizes the objective over the subjective (Torres, n.d.). This contradicts previous approaches such as psychodynamics and phenomenology. In fact, according to Torres (n.d.), what is generally understood as mind or mental life is only an abstraction of what psychology should study: the connection between stimulus and response in a given context. In the same way, behaviorists tend to see living beings as blank slate, whose behavior is determined by reinforcement and punishment, rather than by internal tendencies (Torres, n.d.). That is, behavioral psychologists believe that, regardless of genetic background, personality traits, and internal thoughts, any person can be trained to perform any task, only that proper conditioning is required (Guerri, 2015). Therefore, according to Torres (n.d.), behavior does not depend primarily on internal phenomena, such as instinct or thoughts, but on the environment; therefore, behavior or learning cannot be separated from the environment in which it occurs. History of Behaviorism Behaviorism appeared for the first time in 1913 by the hand of John Watson, considered the father of behaviorism, thanks to his article "Psychology as seen by the behaviorist" (Guerri, 2015). For behaviorists, it is not necessary to imagine what people feel, what they think or why they think, since, behaviorism focuses on all the facts and behaviors that can be observed (Vera, 2013). According to Guerri (2015), any person, regardless of his or her background, can be trained to act in a certain way, with the help of behavioral conditioning. From about 1920 to the mid-1950s, behaviorism became the main school of thought in psychology (Guerri, 2015). Some people believe that behavioral psychology is popular because of the desire to establish psychology as an objective and measurable science. According to Guerri (2015), researchers are interested in creating theories that can be clearly described and empirically measured, but they also hope to lay the groundwork for how to influence human behavior. Behaviorism went into decline in the 1950s, which coincided with the rise of cognitive psychology (Torres, n.d.). Cognitivism is a theoretical model that emerged as a response to behaviorism's overemphasis on explicit behavior, leaving cognition aside. The gradual inclusion of intervention variables in the behaviorist model has promoted, to a large extent, this paradigm shift, which is called the cognitive revolution. Subsequently, according to Torres (n.d.), the contributions and principles of behaviorism and cognitivism will eventually come together in what is known as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which focuses on finding the most scientifically supported treatment options. Finally, third generation therapies, developed in recent years, restore some of the principles of radical behaviorism, thus reducing the influence of cognitivism (Torres, n.d.). For example, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, Behavioral Activation Therapy for depression or Dialectical Behavior Therapy for borderline personality disorder. Strengths of Behaviorism One of the greatest strengths of behavioral psychology is the ability to clearly observe and measure behavior (Cherry, 2021). Behaviorism is based on observable behavior, so sometimes, it is easier to quantify it when conducting research (Guerri, 2015). This method is often very useful to change maladaptive or disruptive behaviors, both in children and adults. Furthermore, according to Guerri (2015), there are many effective treatment techniques, such as intensive behavioral intervention, behavior analysis, or token economy. Weaknesses of Behaviorism Many critics claim that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior (Guerri, 2015). They suggest that the behavioral theory fails to consider free will and internal influences, such as emotions, thoughts, and feelings (Guerri, 2015). Freud, for example, felt that behaviorism failed by ignoring unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires that influence people's actions (Cherry, 2021). According to Cherry (2021), other thinkers such as Carl Rogers and the other humanistic psychologists believed that behaviorism was too rigid and limited, regardless of their personal capacity to act. In the same vein, it does not explain how other types of learning can occur without the use of reinforcement and punishment (Guerri, 2015). Finally, in correspondence with Guerri (2015), humans and animals can adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if this behavior is established by reinforcement. Authors of Behaviorism According to France (2020), there is not a single monolithic behaviorism, but as many behaviorisms as its most authoritative representatives, who, in some way, are connected with this theoretical current. First Generation John Watson (1878-1958) Ivan Pávlov (1849-1936) Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) Second Generation Burrhus Skinner (1904-1990) Edwin Guthrie (1886-1959) Clark Hull (1884-1952) Edward Tolman (1886-1959) Third Generation Albert Bandura (1925) Arthur Staats (1924) References Cherry, K. (2021). Why Behaviorism Is One of Psychology's Most Fascinating Branches. Verywell Mind. Recuperado 21 March 2021, a partir de https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183 Francia, G. (2020). ¿Qué es el CONDUCTISMO en la PSICOLOGÍA? - Definición, autores y teorías. psicologia-online.com. Recuperado 21 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/que-es-el-conductismo-en-la-psicologia-5238.html Guerri, M. (2015). En qué consiste la Psicología Conductual. PsicoActiva.com: Psicología, test y ocio Inteligente. Recuperado 21 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicoactiva.com/blog/consiste-la-psicologia-conductual/ Torres, A. ​Conductismo: historia, conceptos y autores principales. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 21 March 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/conductismo Vera, M. (2013). Historia del Conductismo. Psicología Hoy. Recuperado 23 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologiahoy.com/historia-del-conductismo/ Vergara, C. (2018). ¿En qué consiste el enfoque conductual en psicología?. Actualidad en Psicología. Recuperado 21 March 2021, a partir de https://www.actualidadenpsicologia.com/enfoque-conductual-psicologia/