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Teaching and learning processes are essential components of human beings, since the survival of all societies depends on the practice of learning and teaching (Mena, 2009). In fact, there is a whole branch of psychology that studies these processes: educational psychology (Pérez & Hernández, 2014). According to Mena (2009), this field studies and provides information on how to learn, especially, on how to master scientific knowledge, attitudes and procedures. What is learning? It is not easy to talk about learning, since, there are several theories and methods that explain learning and conceive it as a transformation in the subject (Pérez & Hernández, 2014). According to Pérez & Hernández (2014), what is clear is that humans and higher animals have a certain capacity to adapt their behavior and solve problems, which can be the result of environmental pressures or accidental events, as well as, of voluntary or involuntary learning processes. Therefore, learning can be defined as the acquisition of novel information, behaviors or skills after practice, observation or other experiences, evidenced by changes in behavior, knowledge or brain function (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.). In short, according to France (2020), learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior based on experience. Learning means paying attention, consciously or unconsciously, to relevant aspects of incoming information, mentally organizing the information into a coherent cognitive representation and integrating it with relevant existing knowledge, which is activated from long-term memory (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.). According to Pérez & Hernández (2014), this is why human learning is linked to personal development and occurs best when the subject is motivated, i.e., when he/she wants to learn and makes an effort. Learning Factors To understand the concept of learning in psychology, different components must be considered (France, 2020). The first one, deals with the previous cognitive prerequisites, which include the contribution of previous experience and current learning processes, related to the problem of transfer cognitive operations (France, 2020). According to Gomez (2020), these can be, among others: sensory perception, reasoning, abstraction capacity, orientation, memory and attention. Another factor of learning in psychology are the affective prerequisites, or affective maturation, which consist of achieving the basic autonomy necessary to manage oneself (France, 2020). And at the same time, according to France (2020), it lies in achieving that tranquility that allows people to concentrate on an activity. In the same way, the didactic experience has to do with the space, with the participants, with the activities, with the group or with the management style (France, 2020). All people work much better when they are in a physical space where they feel comfortable (Hernández, 2020). According to Hernandez (2020), this is why classrooms have become an important element and have a great influence on the learning model: new technologies, new methods, school furniture, light and decorative elements. In turn, the quality of the family environment and bond is one of the main factors of learning in determining the differences between individuals in learning levels (France, 2020). The quality of the bond is related to the degree of closeness and affective relationship between parents and children and how loved and accepted they feel (Romagnoli & Cortese, 2016). According to Romagnoli & Cortese (2016), families that have a positive impact on their children's school performance and adjustment tend to foster contact with each other, and their interactions are loving, open, empathic, and trusting. Finally, culture is an important component in learning (Bates, 2015). Because learning takes place in a social and cultural environment, it is important to deal with the sociocultural and group dynamics factors that affect it (France, 2020). In most learning environments, culture is taken for granted or cannot be perceived by either students or teachers (Bates, 2015). In accordance with Bates (2015) this is why it is important to be aware of the influence of culture in all learning environments. References APA Dictionary of Psychology. APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Recuperado 19 March 2021, a partir de https://dictionary.apa.org/learning Bates, A. (2015). A.9 Cultura y entornos de aprendizaje. Cead.pressbooks.com. Recuperado 20 March 2021, a partir de https://cead.pressbooks.com/chapter/a-9-cultura-y-entornos-de-aprendizaje-2/ Francia, G. (2020). ¿Qué es el APRENDIZAJE en PSICOLOGÍA? - Significado y tipos. psicologia-online.com. Recuperado 19 March 2021, a partir de https://www.psicologia-online.com/que-es-el-aprendizaje-en-psicologia-5347.html Gómez, L. (2020). HABILIDADES PREVIAS A LA ADQUISICIÓN DE LA LECTURA Y LA ESCRITURA. Chavert Psicología. Recuperado 19 March 2021, a partir de https://www.chavertpsicologia.com/habilidades-previas-a-la-adquisicion-de-la-lectura-y-la-escritura/ Hernández, M. (2020). La importancia de los espacios escolares para motivar el aprendizaje. EDIME. Recuperado 20 March 2021, a partir de https://edime.es/blog/noticias/la-importancia-de-los-espacios-escolares-para-motivar-el-aprendizaje Mena, M. (2009). ¿Qué es enseñar y qué es aprender?. Uenma.edu.ec. Recuperado 19 March 2021, a partir de https://www.uenma.edu.ec/recursos/Santillana%20Archivos/Que%20es%20ensenar%20y%20que%20es%20aprender.pdf Pérez, K., & Hernández, J. (2014). Aprendizaje y comprensión. Una mirada desde las humanidades. Scielo. Recuperado 19 March 2021, a partir de http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1727-81202014000300010 Romagnoli, C., & Cortese, I. (2016). ¿Cómo la familia influye en el aprendizaje y rendimiento escolar?. Valoras.uc.cl. Recuperado 20 March 2021, a partir de http://valoras.uc.cl/images/centro-recursos/familias/ApoyoAlAprendizajeEnLaComunidad/Fichas/Como-la-familia-influye-en-el-aprendizaje-y-rendimiento.pdf

What is Good Teaching? There are hundreds of answers to this question, which have been studied by educators, psychologists, philosophers, novelists, journalists, filmmakers, mathematicians, scientists, historians, politicians, and parents, to name a few (Woolfolk, 2010). Good teaching is not limited to classrooms, for it occurs in homes and hospitals, museums and sales committees, doctor's offices and summer camps (Woolfolk, 2010). A central issue in the discussion of effective teaching debates relates to the definition of "effective" as well as how it can be adequately measured (Devine, Fahie & McGillicuddy, 2013). Now, is good teaching a science or an art? Is a good teacher a performer or a good coach? This debate has been going on for many years (Woolfolk, 2010). However, good teaching is as much about passion as it is about reason (Gonzalez, 2015). It is not only about motivating students to learn, but also, teaching them to learn in a relevant, meaningful and memorable way. It is giving importance to what is taught, having passion for the subjects and transmitting that enthusiasm to everyone, especially to the students. In the same way, good teaching has to do with the essence and with the formation of students as consumers of knowledge. Finally, according to González (2015), good teaching closes the gap between theory and practice. Characteristics of a Good Teacher Teacher, professor, lecturer, or master are the terms used to denote a common profession, that of teaching (Uriarte, 2020). According to Uriarte (2020), it refers to one of the basic engines of the constitution of modern societies, which is to disseminate to future generations, values and knowledge that are considered transcendental, valuable and of great importance. In accordance with Martín, González & Llorente (2016), for more than three decades, reference has been made to the evaluation of teaching work based on the perception of students, which is considered one of the models with the longest trajectory and use in institutions, since, listening to what are the characteristics mentioned by students helps to identify which are the good teachers and helps to understand what is good teaching and how it can guide decision-making in the classroom. Patient The good teacher is patient, since, not everyone learns in the same way, nor do they have the same abilities, nor the same talents, nor the same family conditions (Uriarte, 2020). In other words, each student is different and, therefore, teachers must consider each student individually (Marín, 2019). Finally, according to Uriarte (2020), a good teacher must be generous with his or her attention and with the time students need to understand the topics of the class. Responsible Teaching is one of the most important professions, since it initiates the formation of a new society (Marín, 2019). The teacher at the front of the class is in charge of the students' learning (Uriarte, 2020). Therefore, the teacher must be a dedicated and responsible person, who attends to the students and responds to their needs (Martín, González & Llorente, 2016). In addition to doing his or her homework, a teacher must ensure that he or she is as effective as possible (Uriarte, 2020). Humble Bragging about the titles you have or taking refuge in the position you hold is a bad way to earn respect and a bad way to build a bond with the student (Uriarte, 2020). A good teacher should be approachable and friendly; it is not necessary to always be on a pedestal (Uriarte, 2020). In accordance with Marín (2019), the good teacher should be a role model and represent that people also make mistakes, therefore, he/she should recognize his/her mistakes as just another person. Committed The quality of teaching performance can be perceived from different points of view, one of them is the level of commitment (Rivadeneyra, 2020). Teachers who are committed to the human quality of teaching tend to spend more time with their students. According to Rivadeneyra (2020) education is not just concepts, what makes teaching valuable in classrooms is precisely the social interaction in an active learning community. Lover of Continuing Education Teaching is far from being a single, rigid method, to which, everyone without distinction must adapt, since, understanding is realized through a variety of methods (Uriarte, 2020). According to Woolfolk (2010), teachers need to know the research on student development, as well as, for example, the patterns that are common to certain age groups, social classes, geographies, and genders; in addition, they need to know their own students, who are a unique combination of culture, gender, and geography. As in any profession, the world moves on and teachers may find themselves in a situation where they must cope and continue to learn (Marin, 2019). That is, the teacher must do everything possible to stay updated, read sources, be in and out of their areas of expertise (González, 2015; Martín, González & Llorente, 2016), since, according to Marín (2019), when students realize that the teacher is not one hundred percent in control of what they are talking about, they disconnect and feel insecure about the situation. Exercise Authority Currently, a teacher's authority is not directly related to the role he or she plays, but depends on the respect he or she inspires among students (Uriarte, 2020). According to Marín (2019), it is an obligation to achieve a certain balance in order to eliminate fears and distance, without forgetting that the teacher is the exemplary figure, and therefore exercise the power given to him/her as a teacher. In the same way, the teacher needs to know how to earn the respect of his students, becoming a role model and a positive link (Uriarte, 2020). Especially with difficult target groups, such as young people or people in at-risk situations, this may mean that the teacher imposes him/herself and gives him/herself a place of authority in the classroom. However, according to Uriarte (2020), there are smarter ways to do this. Good Communication People think that the most important quality a teacher should have is knowledge, because that's what the job is all about: sharing knowledge (Hunbbel, 2018). But no matter how knowledgeable a person is, if he or she cannot convey what he or she knows in a way that is not only understandable but also engaging, the knowledge itself is useless (Hunbbel, 2018). For example, in classes where students must maintain their attention, the possibility of good communication will arouse students' attention through various voice strokes and by raising and lowering the volume. Therefore, according to Marín (2019) and Martín, González & Llorente (2016), teachers must use correct language adapted to their students so that the information reaches everyone in the same terms. The profession of a teacher is teaching and his tool is the word (Marín, 2019). In the same way, he must use an appropriate rhythm in communication and must carry out an ideal speech, taking into account the tone, rhythm and vocabulary appropriate for the audience (Marín, 2019). That is, a communication that is not only addressed to the students, but also to the rest of the school community (Sanfeliciano, 2019). After all, one does not always have the same type of audience. Knows how to Listen A good teacher listens, asks questions, is sensitive, and remembers that every student and every class is different (González, 2015; Martín, González & Llorente, 2016). In other words, in an ideal learning environment, teachers ask important questions and then listen, actively, carefully, and sensitively to what students have to say (Hunbbel, 2018). Great teachers listen carefully and then use what they hear to enhance communication. Consistent with Gonzalez (2015), it is about eliciting responses and developing the oral communication skills of those students who are quieter and promoting students to strive for excellence, but, at the same time, being human, respecting others, and being professional at all times. Style The good teacher is also about style (Gonzalez, 2015). Effective teaching is not about putting both hands on a podium or looking at a slide projector while the teacher moves around the room (Gonzalez, 2015). The teacher must be a communicator, a kind of stimulus, who motivates students in the paths of learning, not a simple repeater of information (Uriarte, 2020). Finally, according to González (2015), a good teacher is responsible for the classroom and for the learning of all students. Motivator Motivation is the main resource that teachers should have, since, it is proven that students achieve excellent results when they are motivated (Marín, 2019). To do this, the teacher must be enthusiastic about his or her own task and the content (Uriarte, 2020). A teacher who knows how to transmit his or her passion for teaching will form students who are passionate about learning, since, the motivation instilled in students will awaken their curiosity and enhance their ability to learn (Uriarte, 2020). With this in mind, effective teachers transform educational tasks into creative and stimulating activities that improve the quality of education. Likewise, students who are challenged in problem solving, in which they develop skills that serve them in other areas of their lives and satisfy their curiosity, are much more productive and achieve the proposed learning outcome (Rivadeneyra, 2020). Therefore, according to Marín (2019), teachers should focus on studying students' motivations in order to develop training that can predict real positive reviews. Has Humor The good teacher is humor (González, 2015; Martín, González & Llorente, 2016). While most people do not consider humor to be a quality, it is one of the most important qualities of an ideal teacher (Vallikat, 2020). Having a good sense of humor means making jokes to break the ice and allow students to learn in a more relaxed environment (Gonzalez, 2015). By being funny, it does not only refer to making jokes, but also enjoying students' jokes and naughty little activities (Vallikat, 2020). Teachers who are funny have the ability to easily bond with students and create a joyful environment (Vallikat, 2020). This is very important since, according to Gonzalez (2015), teachers should be self-critical and not take everything too seriously. Intuitive and Observant A good teacher knows when to go to a distant student, when to demand better results from a lazy one, and how to evaluate a group of people with very different potentials (Uriarte, 2020). It is about appreciating the individual processes of learning without losing the notion of totality and natural competence. According to Uriarte (2020), the ideal teacher should know about his or her students much more than about their transcripts. References Devine, D., Fahie, D., & McGillicuddy, D. (2013). What is ‘good’ teaching? Teacher beliefs and practices about their teaching. Taylor & Francis. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03323315.2013.773228?casa_token=4Qdk9UWqqgQAAAAA%3AKik9NjNqlTuZEbraB45yJ8NU1AI4e8Zw7u_ZTO0IztvKBV-ZBLWMRTYatkv5QcxksV8I_WaCaHU73E1G González, H. (2015). La buena enseñanza. Diario Occidente. Recuperado 15 March 2021, a partir de https://occidente.co/opinion/cibernautas/la-buena-ensenanza/ Hunbbel, S. (2018). Top 9 Characteristics and Qualities of a Good Teacher. Owlcation. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://owlcation.com/academia/Characteristics-Of-A-Good-Teacher Marín, N. (2019). 15 características de un buen docente o maestro. Lifeder. Recuperado 15 March 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/como-ser-buen-profesor/ Martín, S., González, M., & Llorente, A. (2016). ¿qué características psicológicas valoran los estudiantes universitarios de sus profesores?. Dialnet. Recuperado 15 March 2021, a partir de https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5746718 Rivadeneyra, E. (2020). Las características de un buen maestro. Talent Republic. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://www.talent-republic.tv/talent/education/las-caracteristicas-de-un-buen-maestro/ Sanfeliciano, A. (2019). ¿Qué significa ser un buen profesor?. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/significa-buen-profesor/ Uriarte, J. (2020). 10 Características de un Buen Docente. Recuperado 15 March 2021, a partir de https://www.caracteristicas.co/buen-docente/ Uriarte, J. (2020). Buen Profesor. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://www.caracteristicas.co/buen-profesor/ Vallikat, A. (2020). 20 Qualities of a Good Teacher: Improve your teaching skills. Teachmint: India’s No.1 Teaching platform.. Recuperado 18 March 2021, a partir de https://blog.teachmint.com/qualities-of-a-good-teacher/ Woolfolk, A. (2010). Psicología Educativa. Crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de https://crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/libro-psicologia-educativa.pdf

Teacher - Student Relationship There are connections that must be absolutely healthy for the socio-professional climate to make a difference (Caravallo, 2018). Of all the components that characterize an educational institution, the environment must be seen as a powerful educator and conditioner of the group of people with whom one lives daily. According to Caravallo (2018), various responsibilities and relationships are observed from the perspective of the professional role of the teacher, mainly with his students, but also with his colleagues, with professional associations, with the parents of his students and with the authorities involved in education. Educational action in the teacher-student relationship takes place between pressures emanating from three fronts: social and institutional power, the family and the demands of contemporary life (Caravallo, 2018). According to Caravallo (2018), these influences can characterize the type of bond that develops in the classroom, depending on the way and manner in which the pressures exerted by the components of life in society are faced. Similarly, the quality of the teacher-student relationship, in kindergarten, defined in terms of the degree of conflict with the child, the child's dependence on the teacher, and the teacher's feelings for the child, can predict various academic and behavioral outcomes through eighth grade, especially in the case of students with behavioral problems (Woolfolk, 2010). According to Woolfolk (2010), if teachers are sensitive to students' needs and provide consistent and congruent feedback, students who have serious behavioral problems are less likely to exhibit them in the future. Similarly, the quality of the interactions that children establish with early teachers affects the relationships they have with teachers in later grades (Recio, 2014), as well as, according to Woolfolk (2010), later school performance. It has been shown, according to Woolfolk (2010), that the emotional warmth of teacher-student interactions, as well as the teacher's ability to consistently recognize and respond to children's needs, portends children's progress in reading and mathematics. Likewise, a positive interaction with the teacher, helps students develop the confidence to experiment and succeed in an environment where they are not constrained by fear of failure (Sriraman, 2019). According to Recio (2014), this context of security, facilitates children to feel comfortable when they show their doubts, express their opinions, tell things about themselves, among other things, from the calm and authenticity, with the relevance that this has for the construction of their personality and the image of themselves and others. The Cost of Poor Teaching Quality It is important that the teacher, as well as the other people of reference for the child, transmit messages in a congruent manner, i.e., take into account what is said, whether verbal or nonverbal, how it is said, what is done and how it is done (Recio, 2014). According to Recio (2014), it is not only about coherence between speech and actions, but also to the ability to adapt to the needs of each learner. In a widely circulated study, researchers studied the impact of having, successively, multiple effective or ineffective teachers on students (Woolfolk, 2010). They looked at fifth-grade students in two large metropolitan school systems in Tennessee. In one of the districts, the average scores of students with effective teachers in third, fourth, and fifth grades were at the 83rd percentile on the math standard achievement test, and at the 96th percentile in the other district. According to Woolfolk (2010), students with the worst performing teachers for three consecutive years had average mathematics performance located at the 29th percentile in one district and at the 44th percentile in the other. Students with average teachers or with a combination of low, average, and high effective teachers for three consecutive years had math scores that fell between those two extremes (Woolfolk, 2010). Finally, it is concluded that the best teachers motivate students to achieve from good to excellent; moreover, those who performed less well were the first to benefit from good teaching. According to Woolfolk (2010), the effect of teaching is cumulative and residual, that is, a higher level of teaching at a later grade level can compensate, partially, for less effective teaching in earlier grades, but it cannot eliminate all deficiencies. On the other hand, twin studies show that genetic factors can account for up to 82% of the variability in children's reading skills (Moisse, 2010). But while genes may set the standard for reading potential, a new study published in the journal Science shows that teachers play an important role in helping children achieve it. This study looked at 280 identical twins and 526 fraternal twins in first and second grade in different Florida schools (Moisse, 2010). Using the oral reading fluency test as a measure of reading ability, the researchers determined what percentage of variability in reading performance can be attributed to genetic factors. According to Moisse (2010), twin oral reading fluency test scores are used to measure teacher quality; if classroom test scores have improved, the increase should be attributed to high-quality teachers. Researchers found that good instruction can promote reading development (Moisse, 2010). Without it, children are less likely to reach the potential inherent in their genes. When teacher quality is low, genetic variation is limited, whereas, when teacher quality is high, genetic variation thrives. While teacher quality appears to be an important factor, according to Moisse (2010), other classroom factors can also affect reading ability, such as classmates and resources. Putting a high quality teacher in the classroom will not eliminate differences among students, nor will it guarantee that all children will achieve equally, however, ignoring the teacher as an important contributor to the classroom environment is a missed opportunity to develop children's potential in school and their success in life (Moisse, 2010). According to Woolfolk (2010), effective teachers who establish positive relationships with students are a powerful force in their lives; moreover, struggling students can benefit the most from good teaching. References Caravallo, A. (2018). Equipos docentes que marcan la diferencia. ACES Educación. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de http://educacion.editorialaces.com/equipos-docentes/ Moisse, K. (2010). Good teachers really do make a difference. Scientific American Blog Network. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/good-teachers-really-do-make-a-difference/ Recio, R. (2014). Cómo un profesor puede cambiar la vida de sus alumnos. Blogs.elconfidencial.com. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de https://blogs.elconfidencial.com/alma-corazon-vida/relacion-padres-e-hijos/2012-10-25/como-un-profesor-puede-cambiar-la-vida-de-sus-alumnos_588339/ Sriraman, P. (2019). The Teacher Makes the Difference - The Progressive Teacher. The Progressive Teacher. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de http://www.progressiveteacher.in/the-teacher-makes-the-difference/ Woolfolk, A. (2010). Psicología Educativa. Crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com. Recuperado 11 March 2021, a partir de https://crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/libro-psicologia-educativa.pdf

Talking about educational behavior represents, that in many situations, it must be taken into account that a daily task involves significant challenges, so it is essential to use appropriate strategies (Benítez, Mendoza & Ramírez, 2019). One of them is didactic intervention, which in general terms, can be defined as any action performed by a teacher to enable his/her students to learn what is to be taught (Montagud, n.d.; Rodríguez, 2020). However, according to Montagud (n.d.), there are some aspects that should be emphasized regarding the strategies commonly involved. What is a Didactic Intervention? In a broad sense, didactic intervention is understood as a series of actions with a purpose, whose aim is to achieve the educational goals determined by society (Montagud, n.d.). According to Benítez, Mendoza & Ramírez (2019), it implies a process of continuous self-evaluation, in which, it is necessary to make known the activities that were adequate and those that were not suitable, in order to make the necessary adjustments to strengthen these activities. The didactic intervention consists of a series of phases designed to promote the learning of the didactic units specified in the school curriculum (Montagud, n.d.). According to Rodriguez (2020), the first phase is the diagnostic phase, where the needs of the students, their previous experience in the subject, their skills, knowledge, strengths and weaknesses are examined; the second phase is the planning phase of the activities to be carried out, where it is clarified in detail what is intended to be done next; the third is the intervention phase itself, where all the strategies identified in the previous stage are put into practice, so that knowledge acquisition takes place; finally, in the evaluation phase, the teaching team assesses the results obtained and proposes improvements for future interventions. The forms of didactic intervention are very different, since they depend on several epistemological, didactic, contextual factors, among others, that influence the work and performance of teachers (Benítez, Mendoza & Ramírez, 2019). For example, in the traditional educational system, students are considered simple receivers of information (Rodríguez, 2020). In this case, according to Rodríguez (2020), interventions focus on reducing distractions, making the material interesting to encourage attention, and disseminating knowledge in an orderly and precise manner. In contrast, in more modern environments, it is thought that it is the students who actively cultivate their knowledge (Rodriguez, 2020). Based on this paradigm, in correspondence with Rodriguez (2020), a good intervention tries to increase curiosity and participation, promote independence, and guide students when they get stuck in their discovery process. Characteristics This type of intervention has several characteristics. The first is that didactic interventions are intentional, since they are directed to a specific need or difficulty (Montagud, n.d.). Likewise, they are specific and formal, since they have a determined duration of sessions. Finally, according to Montagud (s.f.), they are designed in such a way that students' progress can be monitored. Although each didactic intervention has a specific objective, established according to the needs of the students and the demands of the curriculum, depending on the pace of learning, the strategy applied can be changed (Montagud, n.d.). In other words, the didactic intervention has a certain degree of flexibility. According to Montagud (n.d.), this can manifest itself in different ways, such as adding more weekly reading sessions or a more in-depth discussion of what is taught in class. Is it an Adaptation? Intervention is sometimes confused with adaptation; however, it is important to emphasize that a didactic intervention is not an adaptation (Montagud, n.d.). Adaptation is a change in the classroom that provides equal learning opportunities for students (Lee, n.d.). This does not mean that students with difficulties are left behind, but rather that, in the didactic intervention, the whole is motivated to acquire the same knowledge and, if necessary, to encounter difficulties (Montagud, n.d.). According to Montagud (n.d.), the application of didactic interventions can allow students with difficulties to catch up with the rest of the students, provided that this demand can be met without the need for adaptive means. Usually, in an adaptive context, the student receives some kind of special support, either in the form of resources or directly by taking him/her to a special classroom (Montagud, n.d.). For example, an accommodation would be to provide a student, who is severely visually impaired, with a printed book with larger print and special glasses so that he/she can read the books that other students are reading (Montagud, n.d.). However, according to Lee (n.d.), this adaptation may not help improve reading skills, but it allows the student to access the content of the book. This does not mean that didactic interventions cannot be made with people with disabilities or that they cannot be taught the same subjects as other children in the class (Montagud, n.d.). What is emphasized, according to Montagud (n.d.), is that adaptation means translating classroom content in a way that is closer to the student's level, while didactic interventions are intended for the student to obtain the same level of knowledge as other students. How Should a Didactic Intervention be Developed? Objectives When applying didactic interventions, the first thing to do is to define, delimit and formulate the goals to be achieved (Montagud, n.d.). The objective is the purpose that teachers set for themselves and that controls the activities of both students and teachers (López, 2004). According to Montagud (n.d.), these should be of a general nature, i.e., extrapolated to the rest of life, and dynamic, in other words, focused on the contents taught in the classroom and oriented to pass exams, know how to do homework, relate the knowledge acquired with nature and the city. In an educational context, objectives are those behaviors that all students are expected to exhibit as a consequence of certain teaching activities (Montagud, n.d.). These behaviors must be observed and evaluated. The term "behavior" should be understood in the broadest sense, which includes all patterns of intellectual, expressive, operative and moral behavior related to the content provided in the classroom (Montagud, n.d.). According to López (2004), the use of this term does not imply the acceptance of a particular psychological theory, because the open nuances of "behavior" or "conduct" are only descriptive terms. On the other hand, teaching activities should be subordinated to the objectives and, at the same time, learning progress should not be ignored in order to discover possible problems in the classroom (Montagud, n.d.). That is why, in correspondence with Montagud (n.d.), it is so important to understand that these didactic interventions must admit a certain degree of flexibility when applying the teaching activities, since the students' level can always be overestimated or needs may arise that require reconsidering the initial objectives. Contents Secondly, there is the content, its structure, organization and sequencing (López, 2004). Basically, the content is a tool used by teachers to achieve the objectives foreseen in each didactic unit, which constitutes a given subject (Montagud, n.d.). To this end, teachers must ask themselves a series of questions to ensure that what they are going to teach is related to the goals they want their students to achieve: What to teach, why to teach it, when to teach it, how to teach it, and how to teach it (Montagud, n.d.). On the other hand, there are several principles that can be followed when choosing subject content (Montagud, n.d.). However, one thing that is fundamental and essential is that no matter how much you teach in the classroom, students will not learn absolutely everything that is explained. According to Montagud (n.d.), there will always be something that costs more, so priority should be given to content that is more relevant and easily related to personal life. In addition to selecting content based on objectives, several criteria can be applied when selecting content (Montagud, n.d.). According to López (2004), the first criterion is structure, which answers the question: What should students be taught and what should they learn? The second criterion is organization, where it is mentioned that the content is organized according to the three main categories of knowledge, which would be the procedural, conceptual and attitudinal areas. Finally, according to López (2004), sequencing is mentioned, which refers to the expected organization of elements and activities that interfere with the teaching process. References Benítez, L., Mendoza, N., & Ramírez, M. (2019). LA INTERVENCIÓN DIDÁCTICA DEL DOCENTE EN FORMACIÓN EN LA ESCUELA SECUNDARIA. UNA COMPETENCIA PARA PLANIFICAR Y EVALUAR EL APRENDIZAJE. Conisen.mx. Recuperado 8 March 2021, a partir de http://www.conisen.mx/memorias2019/memorias/1/P025.pdf Lee, A. (s.f.) Intervención educativa: Lo que necesita saber. Understood.org. Recuperado 10 March 2021, a partir de https://www.understood.org/es-mx/learning-thinking-differences/treatments-approaches/educational-strategies/instructional-intervention-what-you-need-to-know López, M. (2004). LA INTERVENCIÓN DIDÁCTICA. LOS RECURSOS EN EDUCACIÓN FÍSICA. E-spacio.uned.es. Recuperado 8 March 2021, a partir de http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:20293/intervencion_didactica.pdf Montagud, N. (s.f.) Intervención didáctica: qué es y cómo se crea. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 7 March 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/desarrollo/intervencion-didactica Rodríguez, A. (2020). Intervencion didactica: características, estrategias, ejemplos. Lifeder. Recuperado 8 March 2021, a partir de https://www.lifeder.com/intervencion-didactica/

When the word psychology is mentioned to a person, it is normal that the stereotype of the clinical psychologist comes to mind (Vera, 2020; Sanfeliciano, 2019), that person who is in the office, in a white coat, sitting in the chair near the patient. However, according to Sanfeliciano (2019), psychology is a very broad scientific discipline that studies, fundamentally, human behavior and mental processes. What are the Functions of Educational Psychologists? Within psychology, various specialists can be found, such as educational psychologists or educational psychologists, whose mission is to study and intervene in human behavior, specifically in the educational context. According to Vera (2020) and Sanfeliciano (2019), professionals focus their professional intervention on developing the skills of individuals, institutions and collectives. In the same vein, according to Arvilla, Palacio & Arango (2011), this professional can be integrated into the different levels of education, such as primary, preschool, secondary, high school and higher education, but is not only incorporated in these areas, but is also set in non-school contexts, such as adult education, families, health programs, addiction prevention and social rehabilitation. However, the disciplinary field of educational psychologists is often confused with other educational professionals such as pedagogues, guidance counselors or clinical child psychologists (Vera, 2020; Sanfeliciano, 2019). In this sense, the pedagogue is responsible for the study of education and educational models; the role of counselors is to guide people throughout their academic and professional life and, finally, child clinical psychologists aim to treat mental disorders that arise in childhood (Sanfeliciano, 2019). Although they are very different professions, according to Sanfeliciano (2019), working together is necessary to achieve quality education. Areas of Activity Professional and Vocational Counseling From his position, the educational psychologist is able to work on the development of vocations, talents and skills of students, in order to clarify their personal, professional and vocational projects and improve, in an assertive way, the achievement of professional goals and decision making (Vera, 2020; Sanfeliciano, 2019; Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2015). According to the International University of Valencia (2015), it is not about the professional choosing for them, it is about trying to align their expectations with their personality, skills and abilities. Preventive Functions The educational psychologist understands the family and institutional environment in which students develop and thus, manages to elaborate a diagnosis about the performance of the entities involved (Vera, 2020; Sanfeliciano, 2019). With this in mind, according to the International University of Valencia (2015), the professional plays a key role in the prevention of conflicts, thus helping students to develop an optimal level of emotional intelligence, which will help them to face the inevitable conflict situations in an effective and non-violent way. On the other hand, it is important to highlight that this professional must act on all educational agents, such as, for example, parents, teachers, children, counselors, among others (Sanfeliciano, 2019). For this reason, it is common for the educational psychologist to develop various training activities with parents, teachers and managers on various topics (Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011), such as how are the teaching-learning processes, teaching and evaluation methods, evolutionary development, learning difficulties and their relationship with psychopathologies, disciplinary problems and the management of the norm, psychosocial problems and school adaptation. Intervention in the Improvement of the Educational Act According to Uribe (2012), educational psychologists perform institutional assessments and diagnoses, articulating the knowledge of organizational psychology with the educational sector, since, the working conditions of teachers and principals of the educational institution also influence the teaching-learning processes that take place there. In this field, activities related to conducting interviews and diagnostic impressions of admission, monitoring and promotion of students to new courses, as well as the evaluation and redesign of curricular content and teaching methods stand out (Uribe, 2012). These activities allow advising on the distribution of students by courses, based on an articulation of psychological knowledge of evolutionary development (Uribe, 2012). Similarly, according to Vera (2020) and Arvilla, Palacio & Arango (2011), the professional is responsible for assessing the educational needs of each student, in order to devise an action plan that enhances the educational experience, as well as other psychological skills. Intervention in the Face of Educational Needs Educational psychologists are responsible for studying and anticipating the educational needs of each student (Sanfeliciano, 2019). According to the International University of Valencia (2015), this professional participates in the educational attention to development from the early stages of life, in order to recognize and prevent functional, psychological and social disabilities and maladjustments. In the same way, professionals must address the problems that some students have to learn at the same pace as their peers (Regader, n.d.), proposing the most appropriate measures to deal with each case. They also play a fundamental role in the identification and treatment of problems of a non-specific nature, such as students with depression, anxiety or other disorders that require individual treatment and, in some cases, curricular adjustments. Finally, educational psychologists deal with psychosocial problems, such as bullying, school harassment, discrimination, social exclusion, among others (Regader, n.d.). This is because, according to the International University of Valencia (2015), these problems, especially bullying, have become a problem of the first order of magnitude for the school community. Training and Family Counseling An important part of education is provided by the family (Sanfeliciano, 2019). For this reason, another of the functions of educational psychologists is to act as a bridge between teachers, students and their families, in order to promote social and family relationships and effective collaboration between families and educators, as well as to promote the participation of parents in the educational community (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2015). In the same way, according to Sanfeliciano (2019), through the study and accompaniment directed towards parents, efficient family education models are achieved, and with this, the quality of life of all family members is increased. Socio - Educational Intervention Academic and family life are not the only ones that educate people, but their entire environment, for this reason, the educational psychologist must examine how the entire social system affects the student's academic performance (Vera, 2020; Sanfeliciano, 2019). In this way, he performs assessment activities through home visits, which allows him to consider various aspects related to the primary group of students and their relationship with the social environment in which they live, which implies the consideration of some theoretical, conceptual and methodological aspects of social psychology (Uribe, 2012). And thus, according to Sanfeliciano (2019), the professional will have sufficient knowledge to be able to intervene in the aspects that can be improved. Research and Teaching Research is an important element, since it allows them to validate each of the methods and even develop or modify learning strategies and models (Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011). Thus, the professional studies educational theories and the field of psychology in general in order to be able to explain certain behaviors and help in the orientations and procedures to follow in cases that may arise (Vera, 2020; Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011; Sanfeliciano, 2019). According to Uribe (2012), the professional can perform quantitative and qualitative studies about the mental health of the educational community, which provide elements that allow the improvement of the teaching-learning processes. The Reality of the Educational Psychologist Today The community of parents and representatives, as well as those responsible for public power, are unaware of the existence of this profession, this leads to the fact that educational psychology has no visibility, hinders the dissemination of their knowledge and the arrival of resources to support research in the field (Sanfeliciano, 2019). For this reason, the dissemination of the existence of this professional and his work is necessary to improve the vision of this discipline that is so important for the quality of people's education (Sanfeliciano, 2019). In the same way, according to Vera (2020) and Sanfeliciano (2019), its inclusion in all educational centers and a mandatory postgraduate degree in educational psychology are considered essential. On the other hand, due to poor governmental organization, there is professional confusion between the functions performed by different professionals (Sanfeliciano, 2019). In the eyes of the state, those trained in this discipline are recognized as counselors or psychopedagogues. In the same job position, one person often performs the functions of pedagogue, educational psychologist and guidance counselor. Instead of one person doing everyone's job, there should be a well-coordinated team of professionals working for the education of students. In that sense, according to Sanfeliciano (2019), the current educational system is plagued with flaws that hinder the practice of educational psychologists. Currently, people are faced with an educational system whose objective seems to be different from what was originally intended by its design (Sanfeliciano, 2019). Moreover, decisions ultimately correspond to a political power that ignores the recommendations of scientific research on the value of this professional in the school setting (Sanfeliciano, 2019; Vera, 2020). This lack of support is not only at the level of label, since, neither are they generous with the resources they add to the discipline to promote its development (Sanfeliciano, 2019), so, according to Vera (2020), theoretical contributions in educational psychology are decreasing. References Arvilla, A., Palacio, L., & Arango, C. (2011). El psicólogo educativo y su quehacer en la institución educativa. Redalyc.org. Recuperado 1 March 2021, a partir de https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/5121/512156315017.pdf Hernández, P. (2009). Campos de Acción del Psicólogo Educativo: Una Propuesta Mexicana. Journals.copmadrid.org. Recuperado 1 March 2021, a partir de https://journals.copmadrid.org/psed/archivos/ed2009v15n2a7.pdf Regader, B. Psicología educativa: definición, conceptos y teorías. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 25 February 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/desarrollo/psicologia-educativa Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2015). Psicólogo escolar: sus principales funciones. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 1 March 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/co/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/psicologo-escolar-sus-principales-funciones Uribe, N. (2012). FUNDAMENTOS TEÓRICOS Y FUNCIONES DEL PSICÓLOGO EDUCATIVO. Tesis.udea.edu.co. Recuperado 1 March 2021, a partir de http://tesis.udea.edu.co/bitstream/10495/8973/1/UribeNicolas_2013_FundamentosTeoricosFunciones.pdf Vera, A. (2020). El Psicólogo Educativo: Quién es y sus Funciones. Psiquiatria.com. Recuperado 1 March 2021, a partir de https://psiquiatria.com/bibliopsiquis/blog.php?wurl=el-psicologo-educativo-quien-es-y-sus-funcione

Psychology is responsible for the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes (Regader, n.d.; Garcia, 2019). Psychology has different subdisciplines that focus on specific aspects of the human psyche in order to better understand behavior and provide tools to improve the well-being of each individual (Regader, n.d.). According to Regader (n.d.), one of these subdisciplines is educational psychology. History of Educational Psychology In a sense, educational psychology is very old (Woolfolk, 2010). According to Woolfolk (2010), topics discussed by Plato and Aristotle are still the subject of research in psychology, such as the role of teachers, the relationship between teachers and disciples, teaching methods, the nature and order of learning, and the role of emotion in learning. Research on educational psychology began in the year 1880, when the behavior of problem children began to be analyzed (Garcia, 2019). Since 1920, children's psychological problems have been addressed both inside and outside the classroom (Garcia, 2019). At that time, according to Garcia (2019), people began to pay attention to the emotional, affective, and social aspects of students. In the 1940s and 1950s, research in educational psychology focused on individual differences, assessment, and learning behaviors (Woolfolk, 2010). Beginning in 1955, teacher training in the psychological aspects of education took place (Garcia, 2019). According to García (2019), it is at this time when the figure of the educational psychologist and the work in educational centers appeared. In the 1960s and 1970s, research focused on the study of cognitive development and learning, especially on how students learn concepts and remember them (Woolfolk, 2010). But from 1970, according to Garcia (2019), the mindset changed when educational psychologists began to participate in the development of the educational model of private institutions and parent associations. What is Educational Psychology? This branch of psychology can be demarcated with respect to other branches since, its purpose is to study the way in which learning occurs in human beings, especially in the case of educational centers (Regader, n.d.; García, 2019; Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011). Like any other discipline of knowledge, educational psychology questions itself based on the experiences and problems of its environment: how does the learning process work? what factors affect them? do all people learn in the same way and at the same speed? does the ability to learn vary with age? Thus, the role of educational psychology is to analyze learning and teaching methods, and tries to improve the effectiveness of different educational interventions to optimize the process (Regader, n.d.; García, 2019; Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011). According to Arvilla, Palacio & Arango (2011) and Woolfolk (2010), its interest is also to improve the efficiency of school learning, applying the psychological concepts of learning and motivation. In the same way, research methods, statistical analysis and measurement and evaluation methods are developed to analyze the processes that students develop in their educational career, whether schooled or informal (Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011). In other words, according to Regader (n.d.) and García (2019), the object of research of educational psychology is students' learning and the different aspects that regulate their cognitive development. Likewise, educational psychology is oriented to the psychological investigation of the particular problems of education, from which principles, models, theories, teaching procedures and practical methods of instruction and evaluation are derived (Arvilla, Palacio & Arango, 2011). In this aspect, the responsible specialist faces the obstacles that are reflected in some students and that do not allow them to keep up with the learning pace presented by their peers. In the same way, the educational psychologist works with teachers to plan study projects that need to be adapted to these specific cases, in order to reduce academic delays in these students. In short, according to Llera & Pérez (2011), educational psychology has not only turned teaching into a science, diverting it from traditional routine or intuitive standards, providing it with scientifically verified methodological tools and resources, but it has also tested the steps of the evolution of its paradigm, gradually focusing on the teacher's skills, on the specific needs of students or on the inalienable rights of all of them as members of a society who have a common project. References Arvilla, A., Palacio, L., & Arango, C. (2011). El psicólogo Educativo y su Quehacer En la institución Educativa. Redalyc.org. Recuperado 25 February 2021, a partir de https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/5121/512156315017.pdf García, F. (2019). ¿Qué es la psicología educativa?. Eres Mamá. Recuperado 25 February 2021, a partir de https://eresmama.com/que-es-la-psicologia-educativa/ Regader, B. Psicología educativa: definición, conceptos y teorías. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 25 February 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/desarrollo/psicologia-educativa Woolfolk, A. (2010). Psicología Educativa. Crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com. Recuperado 25 February 2021, a partir de https://crecerpsi.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/libro-psicologia-educativa.pdf

In recent decades, neuropsychological rehabilitation has been accepted as an appropriate and necessary practice due to its impact on daily life (Norup, 2018; Naudí, 2018). According to Bilbao (2013), to achieve the best recovery of people, it is necessary that rehabilitation takes place in different environments, i.e., in different places, with different people and with different tasks throughout the day, taking advantage of every opportunity to perform exercises that promote rehabilitation. Importance of the Family in Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Neuropsychological deficits usually cause disability among those who suffer from them, which, in many cases, is reflected in a more or less strong dependence on third parties (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011), which are usually family members (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Norup, 2018). Due to which, according to Rojas (2019), both patients with brain injury and their families are affected by this situation. Therefore, the family is one of the basic pillars of rehabilitation, since without them the team is incomplete (Rojas, 2019; Norup, 2018; Guallart & Reyero, 2013), as they act as an extension of the healthcare system, and often, they are the ones who provide the patient's long-term care, support and follow-up (Norup, 2018). As a result, according to Rojas (2019), they become an essential part of truly improving the difficulties presented by the loved one. At the beginning of the neuropsychological rehabilitation process, the family can help to establish what is the basis that the patient has (Rojas, 2019), since, according to Norup (2018), Rojas (2019) and Guallart & Reyero (2013), it is the family members who know the affected person best and for this reason, they are a very important resource, both during and after rehabilitation. During the process, one of the roles that the family can play is that of co-therapist (Rojas, 2019). This role involves different functions, such as teaching the patient strategies in real situations, helping him or her to apply the strategies in different contexts, promoting the generalization of treatment processes, providing visual and/or linguistic assistance, and strengthening behavior or reinforcement. Likewise, the family should be trained on how to help in different situations and how to behave. In the same way, according to Rojas (2019), they should be aware of the different procedures in order to share them with all those who are related to the patient. Through this process, it can be seen that family members feel more satisfied just by helping the patient's improvement, thus reducing guilt, helplessness and anger that can be caused by accidents or acquired brain injuries (Rojas, 2019). In addition, according to Rojas (2019), they feel useful and become part of the solution to the problems that the patient may have. Does the Family Need Help in the Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Process? Although patients need the most help in order to overcome difficulties, families cannot be left aside (Rojas, 2019). In many cases, according to Norup (2018), Rojas (2019) and Naudí (2018), neuropsychological disorders have chronic consequences that lead to lifestyle changes for the entire family, not just the individual with the disease. The care and attention of family members with a brain injury or damage involves being exposed to a series of stressful situations, such as family breakdown, social isolation, economic scarcity, physical exhaustion, among others (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). Therefore, according to Norup (2018), family members of brain-injured patients have an increased risk of presenting symptoms of anxiety and depression, post-traumatic stress symptoms, increased stress, tension, and decreased satisfaction with life and quality of life. In addition to the stress that these prolonged situations can cause to family members, caregivers inevitably suffer a grieving process, since they must accept the loss of their loved ones while accepting their new characteristics (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), this process of acceptance only begins when the family, generally guided and supported by the rehabilitation team, begins to suspect that many of the patient's difficulties are definitive sequelae. To make this process as pleasant as possible for the family, coping and problem-solving skills should be taught, a space should be provided to share their own frustrations, and knowledge of available resources should be provided so that they can get help (Rojas, 2019). Similarly, according to Moyano (2016), it is important to provide emotional support, since family collaboration can contribute to rehabilitation and be a fundamental pillar and motivation in treatment. On the other hand, the caregiver must be healthy and stress-free in order to provide quality care to their family member (Rojas, 2019), since, poor health of caregivers affects the quality of the services they provide and affects the neuropsychological rehabilitation outcomes of the patient with an injury or brain damage (Norup, 2018; Guallart & Reyero, 2013). This increases the risk of social isolation and ultimately loss of financial support (Norup, 2018). According to Norup (2018), this in turn leads to a different living situation, which can affect the caregiver's health. This process can be described as a self-reinforcing cycle that, without intervention, can continue indefinitely (Norup, 2018). Therefore, according to Moyano (2016) and Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), the family should be understood not only as a collaborator in the therapeutic process, but also as an element to be treated, minimizing stress and any dysfunction that may arise. How to Help the Family? Intervention with the family of people with a damage or brain injury must take into account the different problems faced by each member and their family dynamics (Rojas, 2019). According to Rojas (2019), all this in order for the intervention to be effective and have an impact not only on patients, but also on the patient's recovery process. Psychoeducation The information and training tasks that make up psychoeducation provide families with knowledge and general strategies to know and understand what is happening, what is going to happen with the patient and what are the ways to make this process as bearable as possible (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). According to Moyano (2016), in this training it is important to make it clear that greater patient autonomy results in less overburdening of the environment and greater well-being for the affected person. Psychoeducation aims to provide information about the damage (Rojas, 2019; Guallart & Reyero, 2013), as well as to inform about the consequences of the damage, what expectations should be held in front of the recovery process, among others (Moyano, 2016; Guallart & Reyero, 2013). In the same way, according to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), it helps to initiate the grieving process, reducing the stress caused by uncertain factors and favoring the taking of more realistic measures. Although families appreciate first-hand information through individual interviews, manuals about the disease can complement psychoeducation (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), family meetings are often another way to promote psychoeducation and their advantage is that in addition to maximizing the use of resources, they favor the construction of support networks. Family Therapy or Couple's Therapy Family or couple therapy is indicated for the resolution of dysfunctions to restore the unity of the family or couple (Rojas, 2019), as well as, according to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), to anticipate and avoid problems in those cases in which changes generate tensions that are difficult to resolve among family members, or to facilitate the grieving process when the family is stuck in a phase of acceptance. Individual Therapy It may be indicated to help the person to adapt and cope better with grief, however, it is generally reserved for family members who have greater difficulties in overcoming the loss, and is often complemented with pharmacological support (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). In the same way, according to Rojas (2019), it works on mental disorders that have been caused by the relative's accident. Support Groups One of the best ways to cope with the family member's situation is to find a support group (Alexandrou, 2014). Support networks are communities created by collectives whose purpose is to share information and establish connections (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011), as well as, according to Alexandrou (2014), to help family members feel less alone, reduce stress, depression or anxiety and favor social interaction in a safe environment. In support groups, both professionals and families provide valuable help (Bilbao, 2013). Therefore, according to Bilbao (2013), suggestions will be more effective, ideas will be more direct and understanding will be more real, because the people attending have, or have lived, the same experience. On the other hand, facts have shown that family members who have joined support groups are more knowledgeable about existing resources, are less stressed and enjoy a higher quality of life (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). In the same way, according to Rojas (2019), knowing the experiences of other people can help clarify doubts that may arise throughout the neuropsychological rehabilitation process. References Alexandrou, S. (2014). Caring for the Caregiver: The Important Role of Family in Rehabilitation. Burke Rehabilitation Hospital. Recuperado 23 February 2021, a partir de https://www.burke.org/blog/2014/11/caring-for-the-caregiver-the-important-role-of-family-in-rehabilitation/23 Bilbao, Á. (2013). LA REHABILITACIÓN CONTEXTUALIZADA, GLOBAL Y CONTINUA. En Á. Bilbao, M. Abdelkader, C. Abreu, V. Abuín, C. Agost & J. Álamo et al., Guía de Familias. Madrid. Recuperado a partir de http://www.convivirconespasticidad.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/guia_de_familias_FEDACE.pdf Bilbao, Á. (2013). PERSONAS DE NUESTRO ENTORNO COMO VÍA DE APOYO: DESARROLLO DE HABILIDADES A TRAVÉS DE LA COOPERACIÓN. En Á. Bilbao, M. Abdelkader, C. Abreu, V. Abuín, C. Agost & J. Álamo et al., Guía de Familias. Madrid. Recuperado a partir de http://www.convivirconespasticidad.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/guia_de_familias_FEDACE.pdf Guallart, M., & Reyero, A. (2013). EL FAMILIAR COMO PARTE DEL EQUIPO DE REHABILITACIÓN. En Á. Bilbao, M. Abdelkader, C. Abreu, V. Abuín, C. Agost & J. Álamo et al., Guía de Familias. Madrid. Recuperado a partir de http://www.convivirconespasticidad.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/guia_de_familias_FEDACE.pdf Moyano, S. (2016). El papel de la familia en la neurorrehabilitación. Grupo Casaverde. Recuperado 23 February 2021, a partir de https://www.grupocasaverde.com/2016/08/29/el-papel-de-la-familia-en-la-neurorrehabilitacion/ Naudí, C. (2018). La importancia de la familia en la neurorrehabilitación. Neurolleida.cat. Recuperado 23 February 2021, a partir de https://www.neurolleida.cat/es/asociacion/neurolleida/blog/la-importancia-de-la-familia-en-la-neurorrehabilitacion/25542.html Norup, A. (2018). Family matters in neurorehabilitation: why, when, who, and how?. Recuperado 23 February 2021, a partir de https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323520354_Family_matters_in_neurorehabilitation_why_when_who_and_how Paúl, N., Bilbao, A., & Ríos, M. (2011). Recuperado 11 February 2021, a partir de https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270822798_Rehabilitacion_Neuropsicologica Rojas, M. (2019). Familia en el daño cerebral ¿cómo puede ayudar?. NeuroClass. Recuperado 23 February 2021, a partir de https://neuro-class.com/rol-de-familia-en-un-dano-cerebral-adquirido/

Historical Introduction In the last two decades, the focus has been mainly on people suffering from brain injury (Carvalho, 2017). This is due to the increase in survival rates in recent years. According to Carvalho (2017), this increase is possible thanks to a deeper medical and neuropsychological knowledge about the consequences of the damage, as well as the creation of more advanced treatments, which allow a faster and more accurate diagnosis. Neuropsychological rehabilitation has a long history (Carvalho, 2017). The beginning of this discipline is related to the great world wars, in which combatants suffered different types of brain injuries, required immediate treatment and prompt recovery. In this case, according to Carvalho (2017), the German neurologist Kurt Goldstein stands out, where his cooperation with soldiers during the First World War provided extensive experience, theoretical and practical, on the behavior and consequences of brain injuries. Later, during World War II, in the Soviet Union, highlights the neuropsychologist Alexander Luria, whose observations of patients with focal brain damage, expanded the understanding of language, perception, memory and executive dysfunction (Carvalho, 2017). In the same way, according to Carvalho (2017), he bequeathed the idea that it should be restored not only physically but also in a social context. What is Neuropsychological Rehabilitation? Neuropsychological rehabilitation are all those activities aimed at improving the overall cognitive performance of patients with damage to the central nervous system or any of its processes and/or components (Carvalho, 2017; Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Aso, n.d.; Castillero, n.d.). Likewise, it is considered as a dynamic process in which patients, families, treatment teams and the closest members of the community interact (Carvalho, 2017). Therefore, according to Carvalho (2017), the relevance of biological, psychological and social factors in relation to the disease or disability is established, which demonstrates the importance of biopsychosocial methods in neuropsychological rehabilitation. On the other hand, neuropsychological deficits can be very numerous and depend on many factors, such as, for example, the type of injury, the location of the damage, the extent of the injury and the characteristics of the person (Guzman, 2019). According to Guzmán (2019), physical changes are usually the most evident, however, cognitive, emotional and behavioral sequelae are more common and long-lasting, which may limit the person's ability to benefit from the rehabilitation process and affect the family environment. Therefore, according to Arevalo (2020) and Aso (n.d.), neuropsychological rehabilitation is a therapy that focuses on treatment, and includes all methods, techniques and means necessary to reduce the underlying disability of those diseases that affect any emotional, behavioral or cognitive domain, such as attention, memory, perceptual motor processes, executive functions, among others. In other words, according to Carvalho (2017), neuropsychological rehabilitation includes a system of therapeutic activities based on the relationship between brain and behavior, which aims to achieve functional changes in order to restore or reinforce previously learned patterns of behavior and cognitive activity, establish new models of cognitive activity through alternative strategies, help patients and their families to adapt to new disabling conditions and improve overall functioning. It is therefore essential to highlight the importance of performing a complete neuropsychological assessment in order to determine the altered functions and the functions that are preserved, since the latter will be the basis of the rehabilitation process (Arévalo, 2020; Carvalho, 2017). According to Arevalo (2020) and Carvalho (2017), it is important to mention that rehabilitation should be performed with both the patient and the family, providing them with information about the patient's difficulties, indications, guidance, emotional support, among others. Objectives of Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Neuropsychological rehabilitation includes any method or process whose ultimate goal is to reduce the cognitive and behavioral sequelae of patients who suffer a brain injury, so as to reduce the impact on their daily life (Carvalho, 2017; Guzmán, 2019). In other words, according to Guzman (2019), the purpose of rehabilitation is to enhance the recovery of affected cognitive abilities, improve the functional capacity of individuals and emotionally help people who have suffered brain injury and their families. Likewise, according to Guzmán (2019) and Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), the neuropsychological rehabilitation program seeks to promote people's autonomy, improve cognitive functions that have been affected, accompany the person to realize their own difficulties and the impact they have on daily life, and accompany them when necessary to draft new life projects. In the same vein, some of the objectives of neuropsychological rehabilitation, according to Carvalho (2017), are to describe in detail the consequences of brain injury according to cognitive functioning, define the clinical characteristics that manifest as neuropsychological impairment and objectively determine the state of each patient, identify prognostic factors and test hypotheses about the relationship between the brain and behavior, which allows a better understanding of how the brain processes information. To do this, a rehabilitation plan is designed that includes specific and important functional goals to help individuals and their families, adjust these goals and make them as realistic as possible (Guzman, 2019). According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), the activities used should be stimulating, gradually increasing the difficulty of the task. Principles of Neuropsychological Rehabilitation In the literature on cognitive processes, attention, memory and executive function are generally treated separately (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). In contrast, in the field of neuropsychological rehabilitation, several reasons justify a joint approach to deficits in these processes. The different cognitive processes cannot be understood as independent entities; on the contrary, the human cognitive system is based on the interrelation of different neuropsychological processes. According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), these mutually affect development and rehabilitation, and may even share underlying neural structures. Also, there is an interdependence between cognitive skills and emotional and behavioral disorders, variables that should be included in any rehabilitation design (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). The type of strategy or method to be chosen will be determined by the type of difficulties presented by the patient such as preserved abilities and the demands of the environment. According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), it is sometimes necessary to test the treatment and see how the person reacts to the chosen method. Neuropsychological rehabilitation must be personalized and adapted to the individual characteristics of the patient (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). For this, several factors must be considered, such as the patient's medical and psychological background, his or her level of awareness of the deficit, his or her ability to take initiative and regulate his or her own emotions and behaviors, as well as the type and severity of the cognitive deficits. Furthermore, in correspondence with Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011),it is also important to take into account the needs of the family and the specific goals to be achieved with rehabilitation. Finally, according to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011) and Carvalho (2017), a rehabilitation program should take into account different perspectives and approaches to address the specific needs of the patient. For example, a patient with anterograde amnesia and an executive function deficit may need an external support program in addition to neuropsychological interventions. What is Rehabilitated? Memory Rehabilitation Memory is a cognitive process through which certain information can be encoded, stored and retrieved (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). This is one of the most important basic skills in daily life (Castillero, n.d.), and at the same time, according to Aso (n.d.), memory impairment is one of the most common problems encountered by neuropsychologists. Memory is composed of three types of storage: sensory memory, short-term or immediate memory and long-term or remote memory, each of which has different characteristics and specific operating rules (Aso, n.d.; Ojeda, et al., 2010; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). Long-term memory is a "storehouse" in which memories that have been accumulated throughout life, understanding of the world, images, concepts and action strategies are stored (Aso, n.d.; Ojeda, et al., 2010; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), its storage capacity is unlimited and so is the persistence of information. Immediate or short-term memory refers to the ability to remember information immediately after it appears (Aso, n.d.; Ojeda, et al., 2010). The storage system has a limited capacity and the persistence of information is of short duration (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), it is a temporary store of rapid encoding in which information is analyzed, interpreted and organized for subsequent storage in long-term memory. Finally, sensory memory is a system that can capture a large amount of information in a very short period of time (Aso, n.d.; Ojeda, et al., 2010; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), sensory memory is outside the voluntary control of the subject, and its function is automatic and spontaneous, i.e., unmediated by consciousness. Rehabilitation of Attention Of all the cognitive processes that occur in the human brain, perhaps attention is one of those that occupies a more central position (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). When talking about attention, it usually refers to the state of alertness or vigilance that a person possesses when performing a certain activity (Aso, n.d.). But, according to Aso (n.d.), attention can also imply the ability to concentrate, divide or maintain mental effort. Therefore, attention is not a unified process, but is composed of multiple factors such as direction, exploration, concentration, or vigilance (Aso, n.d.). According to Aso (n.d.), the attentional process is not only composed of these elements, but also has multiple brain locations that underlie these attentional processes. On the other hand, five components of attention that can be rehabilitated are proposed (Ojeda, et al., 2010). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), focal attention gives basic response to a given stimulus; sustained attention refers to the ability to maintain a constant response over a prolonged period of time; selective attention involves the ability to select relevant information, thus inhibiting attention to other stimuli; alternating attention is the ability to switch focus between tasks that involve different cognitive requirements, and to control the information processed at all times; and divided attention refers to the ability to respond to two tasks at the same time. Rehabilitation of Executive Functions The advance of neuroscience in general and neuropsychology in particular, has been accompanied by a growing interest in understanding the neural substrates and functions of the most complex cognitive processes (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). An autonomous person is a person who has the capacity to govern him/herself and to decide for him/herself. To achieve such autonomy, the individual must be able to consciously control and coordinate his or her thoughts, actions and emotions. According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), the cognitive abilities that allow the individual to modulate the operations of various cognitive subprocesses and, therefore, the dynamics of the most complex aspects of human cognition, are known as executive functions. The set of executive functions is one of the aspects in which more neuropsychological rehabilitation is performed (Castillero, n.d.). Executive functions are a set of cognitive skills that allow anticipating, planning and setting goals, making plans, initiating activities, among other things (Aso, n.d.; Ojeda, et al., 2010). Deficiencies in this type of functions make it difficult for patients to make decisions and perform functions in daily life (Aso, n.d.), therefore, according to Ojeda, et al. (2010) they should be a fundamental objective of any cognitive rehabilitation program. In the clinical context, according to Aso (n.d.), the term disejective syndrome is coined to define the cognitive and behavioral changes characteristic of executive function deficits, which implies difficulty in concentrating on completing a task and finishing it without external environmental control, showing rigid, perseverative and stereotyped behaviors, difficulties in establishing new behavioral tables, lack of ability to use operational strategies, and lack of cognitive flexibility. Language Rehabilitation In recent years there has been a strong increase in interest in language and its pathology (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), the complexity of this function requires the participation of professionals from different fields to better understand the normal process of language and its pathology, as well as to achieve adequate assessment and rehabilitation techniques. Perceptual Rehabilitation Perception is understood as the way information captured by the senses is interpreted and understood (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). Everything that can be perceived in the world and everything that can be done in it, is done through the sense organs (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), everything is initially sensory information and it is the brain that encodes the content captured by the sensory organs. It is very common for a brain injury to induce changes in perception, some kind of agnosia or a lack of recognition of stimulation (Castillero, n.d.). According to Castillero (n.d.), an appropriate neuropsychological evaluation and subsequently an adequate neuropsychological rehabilitation can achieve significant improvements in the perception of patients. Problems to Which it is Usually Applied Acquired Brain Injury Acquired brain injury refers to an injury to the brain that affects various cognitive processes (Calderón et al., 2018). The main causes of acquired brain injury are: cerebrovascular accidents or stroke and traumatic brain injury (Aso, n.d.). According to Calderón et al. (2018), acquired brain injury causes cognitive, behavioral, emotional and even social changes both in the individual and in the academic and professional order. When this type of injury occurs, its nature, degree, location, the time elapsed since the injury and the sociodemographic, medical and biological variables of the patient should be considered, since if all these factors are taken into account, the success rate of the intervention will be higher. It should also be taken into account that after an injury, there is a "window of opportunity" in which patients can benefit to a greater extent from neuropsychological rehabilitation, so this should be done as soon as possible. At this point, according to Aso (n.d.), it is necessary to know which functions have changed and which have not, in order to be able to intervene correctly. Cranioencephalic Trauma. A very common cause of brain damage is traumatic brain injury, which is often caused by traffic accidents, falls or even assaults (Castillero, n.d.). Traumatic brain injury is an acquired brain injury caused by a mechanical force that interferes with the functioning of the brain, causing an alteration in consciousness, such as drowsiness, confusion, stupor or a coma (Vales, 2019). In turn, according to Vales (2019), this impairment of brain function is not caused by neurodegenerative, congenital, or neurodevelopmental diseases. Among trauma survivors, a significant number of them have important consequences that prevent them from returning to their previous activities or accessing or reentering academic, professional, and social activities (Vales, 2019). According to Castillero (n.d.), symptoms and dysfunction depend, to a large extent, on the location and extent of the injury. Cerebrovascular Accidents. Cerebrovascular accidents, either in the form of ischemia or hemorrhage, are a major problem that has become one of the main causes of death in the population (Castillero, n.d.). In them, there is a blockage and interruption of the oxygen supply to a part of the brain, which causes the death of a large number of neurons and, depending on the area in which neuronal death occurs, generates deficits that may be more or less permanent. According to Castillero (n.d.), neuropsychological rehabilitation is of great help to restore or compensate for lost abilities. Cognitive Impairment Cognitive impairment constitutes a kind of "borderline" between normal cognitive function and dementia (Diaz & Sosa, 2010). In it, subjects show significant cognitive impairment, but not enough to impair their function (Diaz & Sosa, 2010). While dementia may not occur, according to Castillero (n.d.), cognitive impairment leads to a decline in some functions that can be alleviated with rehabilitation or neuropsychological stimulation. Neurosurgery Sometimes it may be necessary to resort to neurosurgery to solve some kind of medical problem, as in the case of epilepsy or a brain tumor (Castillero, n.d.). These interventions can save lives or prevent major problems arising from different pathologies. However, according to Castillero (n.d.), they can cause difficulties and affect other functions, which may require neurorehabilitation to return to normal. Dementias and Neurodegenerative Diseases Over the years, early detection of dementia syndrome and early detection of cognitive impairment in dementia have been improving, so early treatment can be performed, sometimes even from pre-dementia stages of these patients (Arroyo, Poveda & Chamorro, 2012). Currently, the key to suspect a dementia syndrome should focus on assessing whether the patient's adaptation to work, social or family life is affected by cognitive impairment (Arroyo, Poveda & Chamorro, 2012). According to Castillero (n.d.), some of the best known neurodegenerative diseases are Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal dementia or Huntington's chorea. The symptoms of people with dementia are not only cognitive, but also emotional and behavioral, so rehabilitation should include behavior modification, family interventions and occupational or vocational rehabilitation (Aso, n.d.). In this case, according to Castillero (n.d.), neuropsychological rehabilitation does not focus on restoring functions, but on maintaining them as long as possible. Epilepsy Epilepsy is a neurological disease characterized by: at least two unprovoked seizures occurring more than 24 hours apart; an unfounded seizure; and the possibility of a new event in the next 10 years, similar to the general risk of recurrence after two unfounded seizures (Carvajal & López, 2019). According to Carvajal & Lopez (2019), it is a chronic disease that affects between 45 and 50 million people worldwide, likewise, it represents 1% of the global burden of disease. Suffering epileptic seizures can cause alterations and decreases in cognitive functions and in the functioning of daily life (Castillero, n.d.). In some cases, according to Castillero (n.d.), neuropsychological rehabilitation may be required. For optimal rehabilitation, according to Carvajal and Lopez (2019), associated factors should be considered such as, for example, age of onset of the disease, frequency and type of seizure, medication, psychiatric comorbidity, sociocultural deprivation, lateralization of the epileptogenic focus, neuroplasticity, type of lesion, among others. Poisoning or Effects of Prolonged Substance Use Some substances can also cause brain damage, such as poisoning by consumption of a toxic element (Castillero, n.d.). According to Castillero (n.d.), when such damage occurs, neuropsychological rehabilitation can be of great help in restoring functionality and some of the functions that may have been damaged to some extent. Neurological Basis For centuries, from a functional and anatomical point of view, the central nervous system has been considered as an immutable and irreparable structure, as well as a closed and definitive system once embryonic development is completed (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). Currently, according to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), these concepts have changed and new ideas can only be understood through a proper understanding of the concept of neuroplasticity. When talking about brain plasticity, the possibility of adapting the function of the central nervous system to minimize the impact of structural and functional changes is mentioned (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). Brain plasticity can adapt to changing environments, including abnormal environments and damage caused by seizures to brain tissue (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). According to Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos (2009), this is due to the ability of the nervous system to change due to endogenous and exogenous influences. Recent findings support the idea that the recovery observed in patients undergoing neuropsychological rehabilitation is related to the reorganization of brain networks and even to the restoration of functional connectivity patterns (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), this reorganization can take place through different mechanisms, which can increase, or reduce when necessary, the number and value of the interactions that make up the network, and even reorganize its topology. Mechanisms and Strategies of Neuropsychological Rehabilitation In the current literature one can find the use of various terms or concepts to refer to different mechanisms used in neuropsychological rehabilitation (Carvalho, 2017; Castillero, n.d.). The basic mechanisms of neuropsychological rehabilitation can be diverse and can coexist, i.e., different mechanisms can be combined at the same time (Carvalho, 2017; Castillero, n.d.). According to Castillero (n.d.), these are different forms of treatment, focusing on restoring the possibility of loss of function. Restoration This approach assumes that altered cognitive processes can be restored through stimulation (Ojeda, et al., 2010). This mechanism involves stimulating and improving different cognitive functions by working directly on them (Carvalho, 2017; Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). Specifically, according to Carvalho (2017), this method is used when the loss is partial and limited to one area, resulting in a decrease of one or more elementary functions. They are characterized by interventions that restore or improve cognitive processes through repeated exercises and tasks (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Ojeda, et al., 2010; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). The premise is to train the neural networks involved in its execution, which can promote axonal growth or pathway stimulation (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). To improve results, it is recommended to combine it with feedback and positive reinforcement (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). However, according to Castillero (n.d.), restoration is not always possible, especially when brain damage is involved. Compensation Based on this approach, it is assumed that brain mechanisms and cognitive processes can hardly be restored (Ojeda, et al., 2010). Compensation of cognitive changes involves the reorganization of processes, which promotes that preserved capacities are responsible for minimizing the effects of altered functions (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Castillero, n.d.; Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). In short, according to Castillero (n.d.) and Carvalho (2017), when the altered function cannot be restored, the use of preserved skills will be promoted with the ultimate goal of achieving greater functional autonomy. Compensation strategies are designed to enable patients to learn or relearn how to perform meaningful activities of daily living (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). In this way, the patient can learn to perform these activities even if the impaired function does not particularly improve (Lubrini, Periañez & Ríos, 2009). For example, a student who showed innumerable impairments was trained to remove all objects from the table that could attract his attention while studying. Substitution It is based on the principle that cognitive processes are not usually completely eliminated, but reduce their effectiveness, so it is useful to develop other structures or brain circuits not affected to ensure their functioning (Ojeda, et al., 2010). Substitution, in correspondence with Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), refers to a new way of dealing with the deficit when the two previous strategies are not possible. Partly similar to the compensation strategy, this mechanism is based on acquiring different learning strategies, in order to minimize the sequelae caused by an injury or damage (Carvalho, 2017; Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Castillero, n.d.). Specifically, according to Castillero (n.d.) and Carvalho (2017), the use of alternative skills that promote functional reorganization through intact systems is maximized. Multidisciplinary Work Persistent illnesses, whether physical, cognitive, emotional, social or psychological, are so complex that they cannot be addressed specifically by any one professional, but require the joint and coordinated participation of interdisciplinary teams (Ojeda, et al., 2010). The multidisciplinary team is composed of professionals in neurology, neuropsychology, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, psychiatry, nursing, internal medicine, rehabilitative medicine and social work (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011; Castillero, n.d.). Therefore, according to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), ideally neuropsychologists should not work alone, but with several professionals. Teamwork requires sharing information, expectations and goals (Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos, 2011). All members should understand the different aspects of the pathology being worked with and should maintain a flexible attitude towards the functions and role assignments of each professional. According to Paúl, Bilbao & Ríos (2011), they must put into practice sufficient resources and social skills to achieve the team's objectives and also promote decision-making by consensus. Finally, neuropsychological rehabilitation involves not only the work and effort of a treatment team composed of the patient and the rehabilitator, but also the families, who provide the necessary support throughout the process (Carvalho, 2017). In short, according to Carvalho (2017), neuropsychological rehabilitation cannot be considered as an isolated process, but as an interactive process. Why is Neuropsychological Rehabilitation Necessary? According to the National Institute of Statistics, the average for men a few decades ago in was 73 years, compared to women 81 years and currently in 2018 the average is around 80 years for men and 85 years for women (Cruz, 2021). For this reason, living longer is likely to make it easier to inflict any kind of damage or for any kind of disease to emerge (Cruz, 2021). On the other hand, increased stress, work life and many other factors have a negative effect, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, among others (Cruz, 2021). In most cases of patients with some type of brain injury, neurodevelopmental disorder, neurodegenerative disease, mental disorder or intellectual disability there is some deficit at the cognitive, motor, behavioral and emotional level that can affect personal, academic performance and/or social development. Therefore, according to Carvalho (2017), with this type of treatment, neuropsychologists aim to create new learning strategies, through different mechanisms, which will allow patients to regain a higher level of functionality, thus reducing possible pathological defects. References Arévalo, L. (2020). ¿QUÉ ES LA REHABILITACIÓN NEUROPSICOLÓGICA?. Clínica de Neurorehabilitación. Recuperado 11 February 2021, a partir de http://www.bobath-es.com/que-es-la-rehabilitacion-neuropsicologica/ Arroyo, E., Poveda, J., & Chamorro, J. (2012). Técnicas de rehabilitación neuropsicológica en demencias: hacia la ciber-rehabilitación neuropsicológica. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1657-89612012000100008 Aso, U. (s.f.). ¿Qué problemas trata la neuropsicología?. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 15 February 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/clinica/que-problemas-trata-neuropsicologia Calderón, J., Montilla, M., Gómez, M., Ospina, J., Triana, J., & Vargas, L. (2018). Rehabilitación neuropsicológica en daño cerebral: uso de herramientas tradicionales y realidad virtual. Medigraphic.com. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de https://www.medigraphic.com/cgi-bin/new/resumen.cgi?IDARTICULO=85929 Carvajal, J., & López, K. (2019). REHABILITACIÓN NEUROPSICOLÓGICA EN ADULTOS CON EPILEPSIA FOCAL. Neuropsychologylearning.com. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de https://neuropsychologylearning.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/pdf-revista-vol2/vol2-n2-2-rehabi-neuropsi-adultos-epilepsia-focal.pdf Carvalho, C. (2017). ¿Qué es la Rehabilitación Neuropsicológica?. Hablemos de Neurociencia. Recuperado 11 February 2021, a partir de https://hablemosdeneurociencia.com/la-rehabilitacion-neuropsicologica/ Cruz, M. (2021). La importancia de la Rehabilitación Neuropsicológica. ISANEP - Neuropsicología y Psicoterapia. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de http://www.neuropsicologosensevilla.com/la-importancia-la-rehabilitacion-neuropsicologica/ Castillero, O. (s.f.). Rehabilitación neuropsicológica: así se usa en pacientes. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 15 February 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/clinica/rehabilitacion-neuropsicologica Díaz, E., & Sosa, A. (2010). Intervención cognitiva en pacientes con deterioro cognitivo ligero y demencia leve. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1029-30192010000600015 Guzmán, A. (2019). La importancia de la rehabilitación neuropsicológica. Neuron. Recuperado 11 February 2021, a partir de https://neuronrehab.es/blog/la-importancia-de-la-rehabilitacion-neuropsicologica/ Lubrini, G., Periañez, J., & Ríos, M. (2009). Introducción a la estimulación cognitiva y la rehabilitación neuropsicológica. En E. Muñoz, et al., Estimulación cognitiva y rehabilitación neuropsicológica (1ra ed., pp. 13 - 34). Barcelona: Editorial UOC. Ojeda, N., Peña, J., Bengoetxea, E., & García, A. (2010). REHACOP: PROGRAMA DE REHABILITACIÓN COGNITIVA EN PSICOSIS. Psiquiatria.com. Recuperado 17 February 2021, a partir de https://psiquiatria.com/trabajos/19cof945441.pdf Paúl, N., Bilbao, A., & Ríos, M. (2011). Recuperado 11 February 2021, a partir de https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270822798_Rehabilitacion_Neuropsicologica Vales, L. (2019). Rehabilitación Neuropsicológica en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico. Ejemplo de un plan de Rehabilitación Neuropsicológica. Cnps.cl. Recuperado 18 February 2021, a partir de https://www.cnps.cl/index.php/cnps/article/view/384

Neuropsychology and neuropsychological assessment are related to the study of the behavioral expression of brain function and dysfunction (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). That is, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), neuropsychological assessment constitutes a method of examining advanced brain functions, through behavioral research, with the help of techniques, theoretical models and procedures of psychology, such as tests, interviews, standardized scales and questionnaires, which take into account exponential, sensitive and precise behavior. Objectives The main objective of neuropsychological assessment is to determine the behavioral, emotional and cognitive consequences of brain dysfunction, by analyzing cognitive deficits, preserved processes and the behavior of subjects in daily life (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). According to Tirapu (2007), this allows understanding the importance of neuropsychological rehabilitation programs as a therapeutic resource. According to Benbunan (2016), other important objectives of neuropsychological assessment include helping to diagnose neuropathology with cognitive and/or behavioral symptoms, identifying the existence and nature of cognitive impairment in early stages, making differential diagnoses, assessing the effects of surgery on the brain, evaluating the toxic effects of certain pharmacological treatments, and preparing expert reports on disability, accident or impairment. Finally, neuropsychological assessment should answer a series of questions: Is there evidence of organic brain dysfunction? What is the nature and extent of cognitive deficits? What are the actual consequences of cognitive impairment? How does brain dysfunction affect behavior and mood? Does cognitive ability change over time? What is the impact on recovery? What is Assessed in a Clinical Neuropsychology Study? The first thing that is assessed is the patient's orientation (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2018). This allows establishing the level of consciousness and the general state of activation (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). During the neuropsychological assessment, orientation in time, space and person is established (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). According to the International University of Valencia (2018), this is assessed by asking the patient various questions, such as name, age, date of birth, identity, what happened and the reason for their consultation. In the same way, attention is studied, which allows people to concentrate on a task and be able to finish it efficiently (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2018; Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). When assessing the integrity of cognitive functions, it is necessary to establish the patient's ability to concentrate and sustain attention, before assessing more complex functions, such as memory, language or abstraction (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). Generally, three parts can be distinguished in the attentional process: selection, vigilance and control. According to Ardila & Ostrosky (2012), the normal functioning of these three aspects will allow subjects to perform and maintain goal-directed behavior. Jointly, processing speed is assessed, which, is an important measure of cognitive function and refers to the speed at which our brain processes and responds to the information received (International University of Valencia, 2018). Processing speed can be affected by various neurological conditions, including diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Huntington's disease, among others. It can also be affected by traumatic brain injury, stroke, sleep disorders, and other environmental and health factors. In terms of reading, writing, and numeracy, people with nervous system problems may not be able to read, write, or perform mathematical operations (International University of Valencia, 2018). When assessing reading, it is important to assess the ability to decode and comprehend (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). Generally, according to Ardila & Ostrosky (2012), poor decoding will affect comprehension, however, some patients cannot read aloud, but have sufficient comprehension. Additionally, memory is studied, which is one of the most important areas of research in clinical neuropsychology (International University of Valencia, 2018). According to the International University of Valencia (2018), the memory that is related to the information we receive, the images we see, the sequence of events, among others, can be affected. On the other hand, executive functions are tools that help people to perform tasks, such as cooking or shopping (International University of Valencia, 2018). Damage or dysfunction of executive functions has important consequences on the most complex behaviors in humans, from emotion adjustment and social behavior to the change of abstract thinking and metacognition (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). Therefore, according to Ardila & Ostrosky (2012), it is necessary to perform as complete an assessment as possible to identify deficits in the different aspects of executive functions. Additionally, higher visual functions are assessed, since, people may not be able to recognize objects or images, or may not be able to locate a point in a space (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2018). Regarding motor skills, the coordination and execution of certain movements is studied. Also, according to the International University of Valencia (2018), the patient's touch and sensitivity are evaluated. Finally, the IQ or intelligence quotient is measured (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2018). Generally, intelligence refers to those skills of reasoning, problem solving, abstract thinking and planning. Along with IQ, the term "emotional intelligence" is discovered, which, according to the International University of Valencia (2018), is manifested as the ability to manage one's own emotions and understand the emotions of others. Evaluation Process First of all, it should be emphasized that if an optimal neuropsychological assessment has not been previously performed, an adequate intervention process cannot be achieved (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). To this end, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), it is important to consider some aspects that help the neuropsychologist to understand the current state of the patient and allow him to guide the evaluation method more effectively. Review of Previous Reports Usually, the assessment process begins with a review of previous reports (Tirapu, 2007). According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), the collection of the patient's previous data includes all available reports, medical, pharmacological, psychological, physical and logopedic treatments, and neuroimaging examinations since the onset of the disease. All this allows understanding the cause of the injury, the initial degree of severity, the location of the brain injury, the physical, cognitive and functional status, the treatment methods and their effectiveness, the development of symptoms, and the presence or absence of complications (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Likewise, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), it allows to adapt the assessment tools to the patient's situation so that their deficiencies do not hinder the understanding of their cognitive status, since in most cases we are dealing with pathological brain injuries where the damage is generalized. Patient and Family Interview Once the previous reports have been compiled and the first contact has been established, the next task to be performed is to interview both the patient and his family (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008), which is the most powerful and economical diagnostic tool available to the professional (Tirapu, 2007). Through this tool, according to Tirapu (2007) and Bausela (2006), information is obtained on the patient's medical history, age, level of function prior to the disease, level of education and employment status. In the same vein, information should be obtained on previous behavioral and personality patterns, in order to know the level of adaptation and rule out the presence of social maladaptation problems, such as substance abuse, impulse control deficits and poor social skills, which can help to address current emotional problems (Tirapu, 2007; Bausela, 2006). Finally, according to Tirapu (2007), part of the interview should be devoted to identifying the psychosocial consequences of the disorder in question (Tirapu, 2007). In short, after the interview, the neuropsychologist must fully understand the patient's situation (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008), since, Tirapu (2007) mentions that, without sufficient knowledge it is difficult to interpret the results of any neuropsychological test and make accurate recommendations for treatment. Assessment Methods By administering tests alone, much relevant information is ignored, even more significant than that provided by other objective assessment methods (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Therefore, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), there are multiple ways to obtain information from the patient, which is fundamental for a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Interview. The interview provides an environment of trust, closeness, understanding and cooperation, all of which are necessary for neuropsychological assessment (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Furthermore, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), through the interview, one can understand the patient's perception of his or her situation, limitations, the degree of importance he or she attaches to them, the level of awareness of deficits and expectations. To facilitate the collection of initial data in the first interview, different initial interview scales have been developed, which can be selected by the evaluator according to his or her level of experience (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), interviews can be classified in two ways: structured interviews and semi-structured interviews. The first refers to a protocol of questions, which is always applied in the same order, which means that the evaluator has almost no option for improvisation (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Generally, this method is recommended for inexperienced evaluators or when the evaluators know little about the case to be evaluated. On the other hand, semi-structured interviews involve more the evaluator's experience and constant reorientation towards the subject under study. According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), in both cases guides with more or less open questions are used to guide the conversation without forgetting some important aspect. Observation. Throughout the evaluation process, valuable information can be extracted by simply observing behavioral and emotional aspects, adaptability to each situation and response to problematic situations (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008; Bausela, 2006). In this sense, it is very important to observe the patient's reaction to everyday situations, how he/she faces the problems that arise, whether he/she perceives the problem or not, whether he/she solves it spontaneously or takes some other action (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). In the same way, according to Bausela (2016), the observation of the response methods, their attitudes towards the evaluation, their understanding about their current situation and the reasons for inspiring the evaluation are also aspects to be taken into account. Standardized Batteries. A standardized neuropsychological assessment battery can be defined as a series of tests that systematically examine the most important cognitive functions in order to identify and typify the presence of brain damage (Tirapu, 2007). In this way, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), a profile of preserved and impaired cognitive abilities can be defined. The advantages of this method include the ability to study certain syndromes and neuropsychological alterations in a relatively short time (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008), the possibility of having a large database that, on the one hand, facilitates obtaining profiles that characterize various lesions and, on the other hand, better control over a number of variables that affect the performance of individuals (Tirapu, 2007). Finally, according to Tirapu (2007), there is a global assessment of cognitive functions, where it is possible to identify not only the main deficits, but also the skills retained in each patient. However, because each battery tends to focus on only one or two processes, this method has some shortcomings, such as the lack of theoretical basis or limitations of the information provided (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Likewise, it does not allow for a comprehensive assessment of a person's broad cognitive spectrum. Therefore, although they help to simplify the work, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), they do not contain the most sensitive tests to assess each cognitive function, since several of the tests are usually sensitive for some cognitive functions, but not for others. Specific Batteries. Specific batteries are tools used to assess specific cognitive processes (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). There are a large number of tests and instruments on the market to assess these characteristics, so the selection of the most appropriate tool should be based on sensitivity, the clinical characteristics of the patient and the reliability and validity of the test. Similarly, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), when very specific information about the patient's process is needed and the usual protocol cannot answer all the questions, specific batteries are used. Specific Tests. The use of these tests depends on the need for a detailed exploration of the main cognitive processes (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). If the most sensitive tests close to the patient's educational level are chosen, a fairly detailed profile of deficits and preserved abilities can be obtained. It should be noted that, except in laboratory situations, where it may be easier to assess specific and isolated processes, generally, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), it is difficult to separate cognitive components and processes, because most of the neuropsychological assessments used are multifactorial. Functional Scales. Neuropsychological assessment based solely on neuropsychological tests, and which does not also evaluate the problems that the patient has in daily life, would not be a complete assessment (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Therefore, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), the use of functional scales will provide another type of information related to the effects of various impairments that the patient has and the autonomy he/she has in basic, instrumental and advanced activities. According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), this information can change the interpretation of the assessment results and the subsequent approach through a more direct assessment of everyday problems, collected through interviews, questionnaires, assessment scales, lists, memory diaries, direct observation, among others. Behavioral Scales. Depending on the cause of the patient's brain dysfunction, it is sometimes necessary to examine possible changes at the emotional, behavioral and personality level, however, the patient's premorbid personality may interact with the neurological or neuropsychiatric disorder itself (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). For this study, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), scales or functional analysis can be used, either by relatives of the patient or by direct observation. Selection of Assessment Instruments In order to determine which scale, test or type of battery should be used for a particular patient, a great deal of information must be obtained about the cause of the injury and even the changes observed by the patient and his or her relatives (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). In some cases, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), a prior neuropsychological evaluation is required. Although all this information can serve to guide the evaluation of different cognitive processes and propose possible prior hypotheses, caution should be exercised and, despite having a preconceived idea, all cognitive processes should be screened in detail because this will provide more objective results (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Thus, according to Tirapu (2007), a fundamental issue that should be analyzed is the establishment of a series of fundamental criteria to be taken into account when choosing assessment tools. Social and Cultural Characteristics. Factors such as age, previous cultural level, nationality or mother tongue are variables that can determine, to a large extent, the results of the assessment (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), assessment instruments are validated by means of a global sample that meets a series of characteristics, so the results only represent this sample and a comparable sample. Pathology Characteristics. As mentioned earlier, the presence or absence of motor and sensory deficits, the degree of alertness and awareness, as well as the degree of cognitive impairment or the stage the patient is in should be considered (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). Many assessment tools require patients to show motor performance or verbal response, however, if the patient does not have fluent motor or speech performance ability, it will not help. In this case, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), there are two options, one is to make the test management method more flexible and the other is to preselect instruments with comparable assessment objectives, thus eliminating patient limitations. Objective of the Neuropsychological Assessment. Depending on the objective, one or another methodology, one or another tests and scales will be used, it will be more or less detailed, a prognosis will be established or not, and the functional impact will be evaluated or not (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), the choice of tools may be more or less extensive, limited to a single process or may encompass a global view of all cognitive functions. Sensitivity. The selected instrument must be sensitive enough to detect relevant or significant changes (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008; Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). Likewise, it should specify the scope of the changes and the areas in which they occur. According to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), this is fundamental both in the rehabilitation process and in understanding the evolution of the disorder, in order to add new treatment elements to the rehabilitation program or revise those that are not developing satisfactorily. Specificity. This refers to the ability of the tool to assess the specific process whose functioning is to be understood (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). That is, if the language test only measures language or if the memory test only measures memory (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). However, according to Ardila & Ostrosky (2012), there is no completely specific test, since, all test scores are affected by different abilities. Reliability. The test should be selected according to the reliability shown (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). The first type, is the intrasubject, where the test results are reproduced at different times by the same subject. Subsequently, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), there is the intersubject, in which the test results are reproduced by passing them to different subjects. Finally, there is the test-retest, where, the test is applied twice to the same subject and the correlation between the scores in the first and second application is calculated (Ardila & Ostrosky, 2012). However, the score is expected to be higher in the second test. According to Ardila & Ostrosky (2012), the test-retest effect depends on several factors, for example the specific tests and the time elapsed between the first and second application. Ecological Validity. This type of validity refers to the need to use tests that can assess, to the greatest extent possible, the impact of cognitive dysfunction in daily life (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). In other words, it attempts to assess the relationship between the subject's performance on the test and the ability to function in the real world (Tirapu, 2007). Sometimes, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), this need is particularly important. Time Available for Assessment. Selected protocols are time-consuming and may involve several sessions (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). In most cases, the neuropsychologist is not available all this time or the patient's characteristics make it impossible to use some of the tests included in the protocol. However, in other cases, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), the purpose of the evaluation may require the use of a complete protocol to describe in detail the patient's overall performance. Hypothesis Formulation Neuropsychological assessment is a method based on reasonable assumptions that can be tested (Benedet, 2002). This process should be guided by the neuropsychologist's understanding of the cognitive functions involved in the performance of each task (Benedet, 2002), since, according to Blázquez, González & Paúl (2008), neuropsychologists should ask questions throughout the assessment process, formulate hypotheses, modify the assessment, attempt to test the hypotheses, and answer the questions posed. Interpretation of Assessment Results A detailed explanation of the results obtained is essential for a subsequent diagnosis of the impairment of certain cognitive processes and the existence of preserved abilities (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). However, interpreting test results does not only mean determining whether the score obtained is higher or lower than the established standard value. There may be a large number of variables that are important such as, for example, the patient's attitude, emotional state, cultural level, fatigue, among others (Blázquez, González & Paúl, 2008). In other words, according to Bausela (2006), the results of the tests must be incorporated into a comprehensive model that satisfactorily interprets the data obtained. At the end of this stage, according to Benedet (2002), the data provided by the neuropsychological assessment can be used to promote basic knowledge of neuropsychology in general and, of course, can also help in the clinical diagnosis of patients and the establishment of scientifically supported rehabilitation plans. References Ardila, A., & Ostrosky, F. (2012). Ineuro.cucba.udg.mx. Recuperado 9 February 2021, a partir de http://ineuro.cucba.udg.mx/libros/bv_guia_para_el_diagnostico_neuropsicologico.pdf Bausela, E. (2006). La evaluación neuropsicológica: procedimiento, instrumentos y variables. Redalyc.org. Recuperado 31 January 2021, a partir de https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/771/77100703.pdf Benedet, M. (2002). Sid.usal.es. Recuperado 9 February 2021, a partir de https://sid.usal.es/idocs/F8/8.1-6407/neuropsicologia.pdf Benbunan, B. (2016). Evaluación neuropsicológica: objetivos y aplicaciones. Top Doctors. Recuperado 31 January 2021, a partir de https://www.topdoctors.es/articulos-medicos/objetivos-de-la-evaluacion-neuropsicologica Blázquez, J., González, B., & Paúl, N. (2008). Recuperado 16 January 2021, a partir de https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270822855_Evaluacion_Neuropsicologica Tirapu, J. (2007). La evaluación neuropsicológica. Scielo.isciii.es. Recuperado 16 January 2021, a partir de http://scielo.isciii.es/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1132-05592007000200005 Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2018). Neuropsicologia clínica: ¿qué es y qué estudia? | VIU. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 31 January 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/co/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/neuropsicologia-clinica-que-es-y-que-estudia

Although clinical psychology and neuropsychology are methods that share many fields, it is necessary to know the differences between them (Rojas, 2019). However, if there is a confluence between the two, which are the emotional and behavioral problems of people with an acquired brain injury, since, according to Pereira (2019), many people with a brain injury become irritable, apathetic, depressed, impulsive, among others, and in this case, the role of clinical psychologists and the role of neuropsychologists is to provide strategies to affected people and their families to improve these symptoms and facilitate the recovery process, thus improving the quality of life. In short, according to Rojas (2019), the diagnosis and proper treatment of any type of disease, both psychological and neuropsychological, must take into account the two professional perspectives, since both help to complement each other to achieve the goal of providing autonomy and improving the quality of life of individuals and their families. Clinical Psychology Many people believe that clinical psychology was born when Lightner Witmer founded the first psychology clinic in 1896 (Rojas, 2019). This new branch merged with the establishment of the American Psychological Association, now known as the APA. According to Rojas (2019), initially, the goal of clinical psychology was to find the internal characteristics or factors that lead people to develop psychopathological conditions, studying not only the state itself, but also the factors that control and intervene in this type of behaviors. Following this line of thought, this psychological approach emerged as the study of "anomalies", and therefore, its scope of action developed from the interpretation and treatment of those affected (Rojas, 2019). Over time, according to Rojas (2019), the focus became not only on recovery, but also on preventing the development of mental illness. Therefore, people began to study techniques to avoid pathological development by teaching healthy mental habits (Rojas, 2019). According to Rojas (2019), the so-called "counseling therapy" was also introduced, which teaches people to effectively solve their problems, highlighting situations that may arise in their daily lives, and as a result, emotional support begins. Neuropsychology Neuropsychology is a professional discipline in the field of psychology, which focuses on cognitive processes, such as memory, attention, executive functions, among others, and their relationship with brain injury and disease (Poza, n.d.). Neuropsychology formally emerged in the early twentieth century by the hand of Alexander Luria (Rojas, 2019). In his research, Luria developed techniques to study the behavior of people with a lesion in the central nervous system. According to Rojas (2019), these studies allowed neurologists to have enough data to identify the location and extent of the lesion and determine the best procedure to intervene. With this principle, the work of neuropsychology, focuses on people with a brain injury, deriving a change in cognitive functions (Rojas, 2019). Therefore, this approach aims at the evaluation and rehabilitation of cognitive and behavioral functions. Currently, according to Rojas (2019), it works not only with people who have suffered damage, but also with children who have difficulties in their neuronal development. Differences in Education Currently, to become a psychologist it is necessary to receive a corresponding university training, for example, a four-year degree in psychology is required (Poza, n.d.). With respect to working as a neuropsychologist, according to Poza (n.d.), it is necessary, at first, an undergraduate degree in psychology, and at a second stage, postgraduate training to accredit that one has the required knowledge to work in this field. On the other hand, according to Poza (n.d.), training in neuropsychology focuses more on higher cognitive processes and on a more detailed study of the brain and its neuroanatomical structure, as opposed to psychology, where research on more general psychological processes is prioritized. Diferencias en la Evaluación Another difference between psychology and neuropsychology is the way in which patients are evaluated (Poza, n.d.). The clinical psychologist will evaluate medical history, intelligence, academic skills, and personality traits. However, according to Poza (n.d.), this type of evaluation does not include tests to obtain data on difficulties related to different cognitive functions. The neuropsychologist, on the other hand, will focus on the preserved and altered cognitive functions, for which he/she will perform detailed evaluations of memory, attention, language, executive functions, praxias, gnosias, among others (Poza, n.d.), since, according to Pereira (2019), after a stroke, cranioencephalic trauma or any other type of brain trauma, a large number of sequelae may occur. The focus of neuropsychological assessment is to formulate a comprehensive rehabilitation plan, which takes into account all observed cognitive deficits (Poza, n.d.). Although neuropsychology also considers situational factors when assessing a person, according to Poza (n.d.), in clinical psychology more of these elements are involved, such as present and past personal experiences, traumatic events, subjective effects of certain relationships, among others. Differences in Intervention In terms of intervention, the difference between psychology and neuropsychology is also obvious (Poza, n.d.). In the field of neuropsychology, interventions usually focus on the use of cognitive rehabilitation techniques (Poza, n.d.). According to Poza (n.d.) and Rojas (2019), these techniques include training to restore functional changes; helping the person find strategies to compensate for irrecoverable functions or other skills training; and the use of external aids, such as agendas and alerts for those with memory problems. In the same vein, according to Poza (n.d.) and Rojas (2019), neuropsychologists usually specialize in neurodegenerative diseases and changes caused by brain damage such as dementia, epilepsy, stroke, among others, which is different from what happens to psychologists, who pay more attention to anxiety, depression, phobias, interpersonal problems, addictions, sleep disorders or interpersonal problems. On the other hand, according to Poza (n.d.), psychologists use tools such as psychotherapy, which is a process that includes behavioral, verbal and cognitive techniques to help patients understand and change their way of thinking and perceiving their own difficulties. In the field of prevention, clinical psychology is responsible for teaching coping strategies in complex situations, social skills and helps to understand and control emotions (Rojas, 2019). According to Rojas (2019), all these operations are performed so that the person learns to recognize himself and fully develop social and cognitive fields and as a result, he will be able to improve the quality of life. Diferences in Investigation In the field of research, there are also differences between psychology and neuropsychology (Poza, n.d.). Currently, one of the research fields of clinical psychology focuses on the deepening and understanding of psychopathological diseases (Rojas, 2019). It does so to find the difference between people who act in accordance with social needs and those who do not (Rojas, 2019). Likewise, it attempts to understand and theorize the personal development of individuals in a deeper way. Therefore, according to Rojas (2019), its exploration is aimed at factors that may make people more vulnerable to emotional disorders. Another approach to research in psychology, is psychotherapy (Rojas, 2019). In this case, research is conducted in order to find tools to improve the way in which mood disorders are diagnosed and treated. Therefore, according to Rojas (2019), psychologists hope to develop tools that are more precise and adapted to each of the disorders. In contrast, neuropsychology focuses its research on different aspects (Rojas, 2019). On the one hand, it goes hand in hand with cognitive neuroscience, where it tries to understand the role of advanced cognitive functions in the development of psychiatry and psychopathology (Rojas, 2019). That is, it focuses on discovering new information about brain function and different related pathologies (Poza, n.d.). Also, according to Rojas (2019), it aims to help develop strategies for more effective recovery from these diseases. In addition, neuropsychological explorations focus on understanding the consequences of neurodevelopmental difficulties presented by individuals (Rojas, 2019). Therefore, according to Rojas (2019), research focuses on pathologies that have been shown to be related to difficulties in brain development, such as, for example, autism and hyperactivity. Finally, neuropsychological rehabilitation is also in their focus (Rojas, 2019). Here, they hope to integrate more and more technological tools to make therapy more adapted to reality. As a consequence, since it is possible to perform activities closer to the patient's daily life, according to Rojas (2019), they aim to improve the results. Referencias Pereira, C. (2019). ¿En qué se diferencia un Psicólogo de un Neuropsicólogo?. Neuroredacer | recuperación del daño cerebral. Recuperado 4 February 2021, a partir de https://neuroredacer.com/en-que-se-diferencia-un-psicologo-de-un-neuropsicologo/?lang=en Poza, U. (s.f). )Diferencias entre la Psicología y la Neuropsicología. Psicologiaymente.com. Recuperado 4 February 2021, a partir de https://psicologiaymente.com/psicologia/diferencias-psicologia-neuropsicologia Rojas, M. (2019). ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre psicología clínica y neuropsicología?. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 3 February 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/cual-es-la-diferencia-entre-psicologia-clinica-y-neuropsicologia/

Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between higher functions and brain structure (Pastor, 2017). This is based on studies that mark the alterations that can modify brain function in a predetermined manner. These changes may be due to pathologies, such as, for example, brain injuries, diseases or developmental processes, which affect many areas, verbigracia, learning ability, school performance, language use, memory, among others. Therefore, according to Pastor (2017), it can be said that the brain is the most important organ of the human being, since the cognitive functions controlled by this organ are those that distinguish us from other beings, therefore, taking care of it is a priority and a necessity. Importance of Neuropsychology Neuropsychology is important because through its contribution to the human being, it is possible to know the state of higher functions, such as memory, language, attention, executive functions, praxias, gnosias, among others, since, there are no biological tests that can provide this information (Pastor, 2017). Similarly, in correspondence with Pastor (2017), neuropsychology covers all pathologies that may involve the nervous system, such as, for example, alterations and dysfunctions of neurodevelopment, neurodegenerative diseases, cranioencephalic trauma, stroke, brain tumors, hypoxia, chronic diseases, among others. It is important to note that, therefore, it is a discipline that supports various areas: at the medical level, it helps prevent, diagnose and treat diseases and in the psychosocial area, it faces the challenge of improving the quality of life of patients and their caregivers (Pastor, 2017). For this reason, in correspondence with Matrínez, Fernández & Koronis (2004), it can be said that clinical neuropsychology helps the interdisciplinary approach to brain diseases with theoretical, practical and specific methods, thus contributing to comprehensive care and meeting the needs of patients. To achieve all this, neuropsychology is based, in principle, on an accurate diagnosis of the alterations of the higher functions, it will then be when the goals to be achieved through cognitive treatment are marked, which will be different depending on the patient, their pathology and the circumstances that may surround them (Pastor, 2017). Therefore, according to Martínez, Fernández & Koronis (2004), neuropsychological therapy can help the patient reduce the impact at the cognitive, emotional and behavioral level, which is conducive to the integration of individuals, families, society and work, and show effective and successful results in the rehabilitation of these people. Regarding preschool children, according to Flores (2016), cognitive neuropsychology is a field that is developing at a scientific level, seeking theoretical models that manage to explain the maturation of the nervous system and its relationship with the acquisition, improvement and enhancement of those cognitive processes such as cognition, attention, memory, language and executive functions. According to Flores (2016), during childhood, changes occur at the anatomical and functional level, which can be evidenced by myelination, apoptosis, changes in metabolism, such as glucose consumption, and changes in brain electrical activity, which are manifested in cognitive behavior and in the development of cognitive skills. For the above reasons, it is necessary to understand that the development of cognitive, sensory, motor and social functions is related to the acquisition of complex skills, necessary for formal numeracy and literacy education (Flores, 2016). Therefore, according to Flores (2016), knowledge of the normal development of cognitive skills is also related to the proper assessment of children's mental disorders and early prediction or evaluation. References Flores, A. (2016). Importancia de la neuropsicología en preescolares. UDLAP Contexto. Recuperado 25 January 2021, a partir de https://contexto.udlap.mx/importancia-de-la-neuropsicologia-en-preescolares/ Gomez, G. (2008). Se expone la importancia de la neuropsicología en personas con lesiones cerebrales | Universidad de Guadalajara. Udg.mx. Recuperado 25 January 2021, a partir de https://www.udg.mx/es/noticia/se-expone-la-importancia-de-la-neuropsicologia-en-personas-con-lesiones-cerebrales Martínez, T., Fernández, S., & Koronis, H. (2004). La Neuropsicología: Necesidades y repercusiones en la sociedad actual. Docplayer.es. Recuperado 25 January 2021, a partir de https://docplayer.es/16343192-La-neuropsicologia-necesidades-y-repercusiones-en-la-sociedad-actual-seccion-de-psicologia-clinica-y-de-la-salud.html Pastor, I. (2017). ¿Qué es la Neuropsicología?. Top Doctors. Recuperado 25 January 2021, a partir de https://www.topdoctors.es/articulos-medicos/que-es-la-neuropsicologia#

Currently, there is controversy about the concept and scope of neuropsychology, as well as the training required to become a specialist in this discipline (Quemada & Echeburúa, 2008). Occasionally, in correspondence with Quemada & Echeburúa (2008), people fall into reductionism, that is, they think that the work of neuropsychologists is limited to performing psychometric evaluations of cognitive processes, especially attention, memory and executive functions. However, neuropsychology is one of the broadest fields of psychology, which studies the relationship between the brain, its processes and behavior (Vélez, 2019). Although, its transcendental nature seems to be an emerging science, according to Vélez (2019), neuropsychology has been an area of interest in psychology for many years, and has expanded greatly thanks to technological advances in neuroimaging, genetics, and computer science. Functions of Neuropsychologists Performance of Neuropsychological Evaluations The neuropsychologist acts in order to evaluate, assess and diagnose the higher psychological functions and affective behavioral states (de la Rosa, 2018; Vélez, 2019). The purpose is to know if the patient has a problem in order to understand the cause and meaning of the problem (de la Rosa, 2018). In short, according to the International University of Valencia (2017) and de la Rosa (2018), the neuropsychological evaluation is fundamental to understand if the patient has a brain damage or injury. The first step, is to collect all the information about the patient and his or her disease, in order to start developing a medical history (Vélez, 2019). Subsequently, the most appropriate assessment tool should be selected according to the patient's profile and the process to be assessed. Finally, the previously chosen assessment tools should be used, since, these provide quantifiable information that can be used to compare the patient's performance with the general population. In this way, according to Vélez (2019), it is possible to see the difficulties encountered, as well as their attitude and understanding of the obstacles. One of the main objectives of the neuropsychological evaluation is to perform a differential diagnosis (de la Rosa, 2018). This means distinguishing whether neuropsychological alterations have an organic basis or, on the contrary, are functional. De la Rosa (2018) mentions that an example is the differential diagnosis of major depressive disorder and dementia. Similarly, the neuropsychological assessment process is used to study and detect those cases in which people simulate mental illness in legal proceedings in order to obtain a benefit (de la Rosa, 2018). The explanation, in accordance with de la Rosa (2018), is that sometimes professionals may have doubts about the accuracy of the impact and/or exaggeration of possible mental alterations. Another application of neuropsychological assessment in the judicial field is the execution of forensic neuropsychological expert opinions, where the aim is to determine, with objectivity and precision, the difficulties faced by individuals and the impact these have on their daily lives (de la Rosa, 2018). In short, neuropsychological assessment is responsible for evaluating the biopsychosocial and professional consequences of neuropsychological illnesses. In relation to the work setting, neuropsychological assessment after brain injury is performed to consider whether it is possible for the affected person to reintegrate into the workplace (de la Rosa, 2018). Likewise, cognitive, behavioral and emotional skills necessary for the exercise of certain positions can be assessed (de Miguel, Fernández & Koronis, 2004). Finally, according to de Miguel, Fernández & Koronis (2004), neuropsychological assessment in the workplace serves to evaluate the neuropsychological consequences of certain occupational diseases, such as exposure to toxins. Finally, de la Rosa (2018) mentions that, in relation to children, neuropsychological assessment can focus on more specific aspects, such as, for example, the assessment of intellectual disability, neurodevelopmental disorders, special education needs, learning disorders, acquired brain injury, among others. Neurorehabilitation Neuropsychology cannot be understood without the concept of neurorehabilitation (Universidad Internacional de Valencia, 2017). This is because neuropsychologists are involved in the process of neuropsychological rehabilitation, which, is a procedure that includes the application of therapeutic techniques to improve behavior and cognitive dysfunction after injury or damage to the nervous system (Vélez, 2019). To this end, in correspondence with Vélez (2019), a series of objectives are established based on demand and specific implementation guidelines. The main content of any neuropsychological intervention is to restore damaged functions, as much as possible, through cognitive stimulation (Vélez, 2019). However, Vélez (2019) mentions that, if it is not possible to restore cognitive function to previous levels, the aim is that, at least, the person can continue to perform daily activities with the help of complementary strategies. In the same vein, any neuropsychological rehabilitation should be individualized and consulted by an interdisciplinary team (de la Rosa, 2018). However, in this work, family members should not be forgotten, since, the role of caregivers is fundamental (Vélez, 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to explain to them what happened to the patient and what this will mean for his or her life. Similarly, according to Vélez (2019), it is very valuable to teach caregivers coping strategies and ways to participate in rehabilitation. Prevention of Brain Damage According to the International University of Valencia, 2017 and de la Rosa (2018), there are many causes of brain damage, so neuropsychologists can intervene and develop programs and protocols aimed at protecting brain health, such as, for example, those programs related to drug use, since, neuropsychology can perfectly explain the damage they cause to the brain. Research Research in basic and applied neuropsychology helps to establish the theoretical-experimental framework and clinical evidence that facilitate advances in the knowledge of the anatomical-functional structures on which diagnostic evaluations and the implementation of intervention programs are based (de Miguel, Fernández & Koronis, 2004). In short, in correspondence with the International University of Valencia (2017), the improvement and prevention of mental illnesses are based on research. Finally, neuropsychology should publish its scientific advances and experiences in the various media, as well as advocate for the establishment of scientific and professional societies and associations that support and promote its development (de Miguel, Fernández & Koronis, 2004). This is because, according to de la Rosa (2018), the human brain remains a mystery, so research in all fields is essential. Teaching Neuropsychologists with specialized training and experience can teach in public and private, health, social and educational centers and institutions through seminars, clinical sessions, courses and supervision of care activities (de Miguel, Fernández & Koronis, 2004). Neuropsychologists who teach in these settings can contribute to the development of the training of professionals in the area of neuropsychology and the care of patients with neurological and psychological disorders. They can also share their clinical experience and theoretical knowledge with other health professionals and students, which can help improve the quality of care provided to patients. What Patients Does a Neuropsychologist Work With? Neuropsychologists work with people of all ages (de la Rosa, 2018). They work primarily with infants in early care; children with developmental disabilities, especially autism, with language and learning difficulties; adults with brain damage; and older adults with dementia. According to de la Rosa (2018), they most often treat patients with neurological diseases caused by brain damage or or some injury caused by head trauma, brain tumor, stroke and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, among others. Similarly, neuropsychologists often deal with older people concerned about memory problems, however, in many oocations, these problems may simply be due to normal cognitive changes during aging (de la Rosa, 2018). However, according to de la Rosa (2018), there are also cases where these problems are due to the presence of mild cognitive impairment or dementia. In addition, many mental illnesses, such as, for example, schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder, can alter certain cognitive functions and, in many cases, require neuropsychological testing (de la Rosa, 2018). Finally, in correspondence with de la Rosa (2018), it is important to emphasize that early detection of these problems is fundamental to establish adequate treatment. References de Miguel, T., Fernández, S., & Koronis, H. (2004). La Neuropsicología: Necesidades y repercusiones en la sociedad actual. Psicodoc.org. Recuperado 24 September 2021, a partir de http://www.psicodoc.org/edoc/92967.pdf de la Rosa, M. (2018). Qué es la Neuropsicología. El papel del Neuropsicólogo en la actualidad.. Canal Educación y Sociedad. Recuperado 14 January 2021, a partir de https://revistadigital.inesem.es/educacion-sociedad/la-neuropsicologia-el-papel-del-neuropsicologo/ Quemada, J., & Echeburúa, E. (2008). Papelesdelpsicologo.es. Recuperado 15 January 2021, a partir de http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/pdf/1612.pdf Universidad Internacional de Valencia. (2017). ¿Qué es la neuropsicología y qué hace un neuropsicólogo?. Universidadviu.com. Recuperado 14 January 2021, a partir de https://www.universidadviu.com/co/actualidad/nuestros-expertos/que-es-la-neuropsicologia-y-que-hace-un-neuropsicologo Vélez, M. (2019). Funciones del neuropsicólogo - La Mente es Maravillosa. La Mente es Maravillosa. Recuperado 15 January 2021, a partir de https://lamenteesmaravillosa.com/funciones-del-neuropsicologo/